Modification of 3′ terminal ends of nucleic acids by DNA polymerase theta

ABSTRACT

The invention provides compositions and methods for modifying the 3′-terminal ends of nucleic acids using DNA polymerase θ terminal transferase activity.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a U.S. national phase application filed under 35U.S.C. § 371 claiming benefit to International Patent Application No.PCT/US16/59419, filed Oct. 28, 2016, which claims priority to U.S.Provisional Application No. 62/248,083, filed Oct. 29 2015, and No.62/338,119, filed May 18, 2016, each of which application is herebyincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under 1R01GM115472-01and 4R00CA160648-03 awarded by the National Institute of Health. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

DNA polymerases (Pols) are crucial to life since they are necessary forthe propagation and maintenance of genetic information. Intriguingly,human cells encode for several different types of Pols, many of whichare intrinsically error-prone due to their open active sites whichenables them to tolerate particular DNA lesions (Sale et al., 2012,Nature Rev Mol Cell Biol 13:141-52; Waters et al., 2009, Microbiol MolBiol Rev 73:134-54). Such enzymes are referred to as translesionpolymerases and are mostly among the Y-family of polymerases. A uniqueA-family polymerase encoded by POLQ, however, also tolerates bulkylesions and is capable of replicating past the most lethal lesion, adouble-strand break (DSB) (Kent et al., 2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol22:230-7; Yoon et al., 2014, J Biol Chem 289:13177-85; Yousefzadeh etal., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654; Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015, Nature518:254-7; Hogg et al., 2011, J Mol Biol 405:642-52; Seki et al., 2003,Nucleic Acids Res 31:6117-26; Chan et al., 2010, PLoS Genet 6:e1001005;Koole et al., 2014, Nat Commun 5:3216). For example, recent studiesdemonstrate the ability of the polymerase domain encoded by human POLQ,herein referred to as Polθ, to perform microhomology-mediatedend-joining (MMEJ)—also referred to as alternative non-homologousendjoining (alt-NHEJ)—which involves the ability of the polymerase toperform replication across a DNA synapse stabilized by a minimal amountof sequence homology (Kent et al., 2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:230-7).Further studies show that Polθ is essential for MMEJ/alt-NHEJ(Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654; Mateos-Gomez et al.,2015, Nature 518:254-7; Chan et al., 2010, PLoS Genet 6:e1001005; Kooleet al., 2014, Nat Commun 5:3216), and as a potential result of this,promotes the survival of cancer cells deficient in the accuratehomologous recombination (HR) pathway (Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015, Nature518:254-7).

Studies in invertebrates and mammalian cells demonstrate the presence ofnon-templated nucleotide insertions at alt-NHEJ repair junctions whichwere shown to be dependent on the DNA synthesis activity of Polθ(Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654; Mateos-Gomez et al.,2015, Nature 518:254-7; Chan et al., 2010, PLoS Genet 6:e1001005; Kooleet al., 2014, Nat Commun 5:3216). Yet, insofar Polθ template-independentterminal transferase activity has not been demonstrated in vitro. Forexample, early in vitro studies showed the unusual ability of Polθ toextend ssDNA and partial ssDNA substrates with 3′ overhangs (pssDNA)(Hogg et al., 2012, Nucleic Acid Res 40:2611-22). Although it wassuggested that this activity might be the result of template-independentterminal transferase activity, the polymerase failed to extendhomopolymeric ssDNA templates, which contain a single type of base,without the complementary dNTP present (Hogg et al., 2012, Nucleic AcidRes 40:2611-22). These previous studies therefore demonstrated a lack oftemplate-independent terminal transferase activity by Polθ (Hogg et al.,2012, Nucleic Acid Res 40:2611-22). More recent studies presentedevidence suggesting that the polymerase extends ssDNA by transientlyannealing two oligonucleotides together in an anti-parallel manner,resulting in repeated use of the opposing ssDNA as a template in trans(Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654). Although this is aformal possibility given the ability of Polθ to promote MMEJ of pssDNA,recent studies have instead showed that the polymerase extends ssDNA byperforming ‘snap-back’ replication on the same template (Kent et al.,2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:230-7). Regardless of the mechanisms bywhich the polymerase extended ssDNA under the particular conditions usedin previous studies, to date the ability of Polθ to performtemplate-independent terminal transferase activity in vitro has not beendemonstrated. Thus, it remains unclear how the polymerase generatesrandom nucleotide insertions during alt-NHEJ in vivo. For example, itremains unknown whether auxiliary proteins or co-factors are necessaryfor activating Polθ template-independent terminal transferase activity.

Considering that template-independent transfer of canonical and modifieddeoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides to DNA and RNA is important formany applications in biotechnology and biomedical research,investigating the ability of Polθ to extend DNA and RNA substrates ispotentially critical for identifying a new mechanism oftemplate-independent terminal transferase activity. Currently, the onlymarketed enzyme for modifying the 3′ terminal ends of DNA is terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT). However, TdT is limited in thisactivity in many ways.

Thus, there is a need in the art for compositions and methods providingan effective template-independent transfer of canonical and modifieddeoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides to both DNA and RNA. Thepresent invention satisfies this unmet need.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying a 3′terminal end of a nucleic acid with a substrate. In one embodiment, themethod comprises forming a mixture comprising an A family polymerase, asubstrate, a nucleic acid, and a reaction solution, wherein the reactionsolution comprises at least one divalent metal; incubating the mixture;and isolating a 3′-terminal end modified nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is s single stranded DNA (ssDNA),double stranded DNA, partial ssDNA, RNA or telomeric ssDNA.

In one embodiment, the A family polymerase is Polθ or an active fragmentthereof. In one embodiment, Polθ comprises the amino acid sequence ofSEQ ID NO 1.

In one embodiment, the labeled dNTP cy3-dUTP, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP,Biotin-16AA-dUTP, Texas Red-5-dCTP, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP, 4-Thio-UTP,Biotin-16-AACTP, Ganciclovir Triphosphate,N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-adenosine-5′-triphosphate, or5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate.

In one embodiment, the divalent metal is manganese (Mn²⁺), cobalt (Co²⁺,or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the divalent metal is at aconcentration of about 1 mM to about 50 mM. In some embodiments, thedivalent metal is at a concentration of about 5 mM.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises glycerol, anon-ionic detergent, and a buffer. In one embodiment the concentrationof the glycerol in the reaction solution is less than or equal to 20%.In one embodiment, the concentration of glycerol in the reactionsolution is 10%. In one embodiment, concentration of the non-ionicdetergent is less than 1%. In one embodiment, the concentration of thenon-ionic detergent is 0.1%. In one embodiment, the buffer is MES/TRISand wherein MES/TRIS is at a concentration of about 20 mM to about 100mM. In one embodiment, the pH of the buffer is 6.5-8.8. In oneembodiment, the pH of the buffer is 8.2.

In one embodiment, the step incubating the mixture comprises incubatingthe mixture for at least 2 hours. In one embodiment, the step incubatingthe mixture comprises incubating the mixture at 25° C.-42° C. In oneembodiment, the step incubating the mixture comprises incubating themixture at 42° C.

The present invention also provides a kit for modifying a 3′ terminalend of a nucleic acid with a substrate. In one embodiment, the kitcomprises an A-family polymerase and a reaction solution. In oneembodiment, the kit further comprising the substrate.

In one embodiment the A-family polymerase is Polθ.

In on embodiment the reaction solution comprises 5 mM Mn²⁺, 20 mM TrisHCl pH 8.2, 10% glycerol, 0.01% NP-40 and 0.1 mg/mL BSA.

The present invention also provides a method de novo synthesis ofnucleic acids. In one embodiment, the method comprises forming a mixturecomprising an A family polymerase, at least one nucleobase, and areaction solution, wherein the reaction solution comprises at least onedivalent metal; incubating the mixture; and isolating a nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, A family polymerase is Polθ.

In one embodiment, the at least one nucleobase is selected from ATP,UTP, GTP, dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP, and any combination thereof.

In one embodiment the at least one divalent metal is Mn2+.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description of preferred embodiments of theinvention will be better understood when read in conjunction with theappended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, thereare shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. Itshould be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to theprecise arrangements and instrumentalities of the embodiments shown inthe drawings.

FIG. 1, comprising FIG. 1A through FIG. 1E, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ exhibits template-independentterminal transferase activity in the presence of manganese and cobalt.FIG. 1A depicts denaturing gels showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNAwith dTTP in the presence of indicated divalent cations. FIG. 1B depictsdenaturing gels showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP in thepresence of increasing amounts of Mn²⁺. FIG. 1C depicts denaturing gelsshowing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP in the presence ofindicated pH levels and buffer concentrations. FIG. 1D depictsdenaturing gels showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP in thepresence of indicated amounts of salts. FIG. 1E depicts denaturing gelsshowing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP in the presence ofincreasing concentrations of glycerol and NP-40.

FIG. 2, comprising FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B, depicts results of experimentsdemonstrating the optimization of Polθ template-independent terminaltransferase activity. FIG. 2A depicts denaturing gels showing Polθextension of poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP in the presence of increasingamounts of Polθ. FIG. 2B depicts denaturing gels showing Polθ extensionof poly-dC ssDNA with dTTP at increasing time intervals at the indicatedtemperatures.

FIG. 3, comprising FIG. 3A through FIG. 3G, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ exhibits preferential terminaltransferase activity on ssDNA and pssDNA. FIG. 3A depicts denaturinggels showing Polθ extension of poly-dC (left) and poly-dT (right) ssDNAwith the indicated dNTPs. FIG. 3B depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθextension of the indicated ssDNA with indicated dNTPs. FIG. 3C depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ extension of the indicated non-homopolymericssDNA in the presence of magnesium and manganese. FIG. 3D depictsdenaturing gels showing Polθ extension of the indicated dsDNA withindicated dNTPs. FIG. 3E depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ extensionof double-strand DNA. FIG. 3F depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθextension of the indicated pssDNA with indicated dNTPs. FIG. 3G depictsenaturing gels showing Polθ extension of ssDNA modeled after telomeresequence with the indicated dNTPs.

FIG. 4, comprising FIG. 4A through FIG. 4D, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating a comparison of Polθ, Polμ, and TdT activitieson ssDNA. FIG. 4A depicts denaturing gels showing Polθ (lanes 1-6) andPolμ (lanes 7-12) extension of poly-dC (left) and nonhomopolymeric ssDNA(right) with the indicated dNTPs. FIG. 4B depicts a denaturing gelshowing Polθ (lanes 1-5) and TdT (lanes 6-10) extension of ssDNA withthe indicated dNTPs. FIG. 4C depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ andTdT extension of ssDNA with the indicated ribonucleotides (rNTPs). FIG.4D depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ and TdT extension of ssDNA withthe following modified nucleotide analogs: 1, cy3-dUTP; 2,Digoxigenin-11-dUTP; 3, Biotin-16AA-dUTP; 4, Texas Red-5-dCTP; 5,N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-ATP; 6, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP; 7, 4-Thio-UTP; 8,Biotin-16-AACTP; 9, Ganciclovir Triphosphate; 10,5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate.

FIG. 5 is an image depicting the structures of modified nucleotides 1,cy3-dUTP; 2, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP; 3, Biotin-16AA-dUTP; 4, TexasRed-5-dCTP; 5, N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-ATP; 6, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP; 7,4-Thio-UTP; 8, Biotin-16-AACTP; 9, Ganciclovir Triphosphate; and 10,5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate.

FIG. 6, comprising FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, depicts results of experimentsdemonstrating that Polθ extends RNA with canonical and modifiednucleotides. FIG. 6A depicts a denaturing gels showing Polθ extension ofRNA in the presence of deoxyribonucleotides. FIG. 6B depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ extension of RNA with the indicated modifiednucleotides (see FIG. 5).

FIG. 7, comprising FIG. 7A through FIG. 7G, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ exhibits robust template-independentterminal transferase activity in the presence of manganese. FIG. 7Adepicts a model of Polθ dependent DNA end-joining where Polθ usesexisting sequence microhomology to facilitate DNA end-joining. FIG. 7Bdepicts a model of Polθ dependent DNA end-joining where Polθ extendsssDNA by a template-independent mechanism, then uses the newly generatedsequence to facilitate DNA end-joining. FIG. 7C depicts a model of Polθdependent DNA end-joining where Polθ extends ssDNA by using the opposingoverhang as a template in trans, then after DNA synapse dissociationPolθ uses the newly generated sequence to facilitate DNA end-joining.FIG. 7D depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNAin the presence of indicated dNTPs and 10 mM Mg²⁺. FIG. 7E depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNA in the presenceof dTTP and indicated divalent cation concentrations and time intervals.FIG. 7F depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ extension of poly-dC ssDNAin the presence of dTTP and indicated divalent cation concentrations andtemperatures. FIG. 7G depicts denaturing gels showing Polθ extension ofindicated ssDNA in the presence of all four dNTPs and 10 mM Mg²⁺ or 5 mMMn²⁺.

FIG. 8, comprising FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B, depicts results of experimentsdemonstrating that Polθ template-independent activity is stimulated byphysiological concentrations of Mn²⁺ and Mg²⁺. FIG. 8A depictsdenaturing gels showing Polθ extension of poly-dT in the presence ofdCTP with indicated concentrations of Mn²⁺ and Mg²⁺. FIG. 8B depictsplots of percent ssDNA extension observed in panel A. Percent extensionwas calculated by dividing the intensity of the sum of the extendedproducts by the sum of the intensity of all DNA in each lane.

FIG. 9, comprising FIG. 9A through FIG. 9E, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating optimization of Polθ-Mn²⁺ template-independentterminal transferase activity. FIG. 9A depicts a denaturing gel showingPolθ-Mn²⁺ extension of poly-dC ssDNA in the presence of dTTP withindicated [Mn²⁺]. FIG. 9B a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ extensionof poly-dC ssDNA in the presence of dTTP with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and theindicated buffer. FIG. 9C a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ extensionof poly-dC ssDNA in the presence of dTTP with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and theindicated salt. FIG. 9D a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ extension ofpoly-dC ssDNA in the presence of dTTP with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and the indicateddetergent and glycerol. FIG. 9E a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺extension of poly-dC ssDNA in the presence of dTTP with 5 mM Mn²⁺ andthe indicated Polθ concentration.

FIG. 10, comprising FIG. 10A through FIG. 10D, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating the sequence analysis of Polθ-Mg²⁺template-dependent terminal transferase activity. FIG. 10A depicts aschematic of method used to sequence Polθ-Mg²⁺ extension products. FIG.10B depicts, sequences of extension products generated by Polθ in thepresence of 10 mM Mg²⁺, all four dNTPs, and ssDNA RP347. Initialsequence of RP347 ssDNA is indicated at top. Sequences of extensionproducts are shown in a 5′-3′ direction. Black underline, sequencecopied from template. FIG. 10C depicts a model of how Polθ-Mg²⁺repeatedly generates products 1-8 from RP347 ssDNA via snap-backreplication. FIG. 10D depicts representative sequence traces of products1-8 demonstrating non-identical sequencing reactions and files. Certainsequences are represented as complements due to their particularorientation resulting from cloning into plasmid vectors.

FIG. 11, comprising FIG. 11A through FIG. 11E, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ oscillates between three differentmodes of terminal transferase activity. FIG. 11A depicts sequences ofPolθ ssDNA extension products in the presence of 5 mM Mn²⁺. InitialssDNA sequences are indicated at top. Black underlines, sequences copiedfrom either original template or complementary sequences generated fromoriginal template; matching colored lines, complementary sequences dueto snap-back replication. FIG. 11B depicts sequences of Polθ ssDNAextension products in the presence of 10 mM Mg²⁺ and 1 mM Mn²⁺. InitialssDNA sequences are indicated at top. Black underlines, sequences copiedfrom either original template or complementary sequences generated fromoriginal template; matching colored lines, complementary sequences dueto snap-back replication. FIG. 11C depicts models of Polθ terminaltransferase activities. (Top) Polθ preferentially exhibitstemplate-independent activity in the presence of Mg²⁺ and Mn²⁺. Polθalso performs templated ssDNA extension in cis (bottom left) and intrans (bottom right), and oscillates between these three mechanisms.FIG. 11D depicts models of Polθ terminal transferase activity based onsequences 3 and 8 from FIG. 11B. FIG. 11E depicts a plot showing lengthsof ssDNA products generated by Polθ in the presence of indicateddivalent cations.

FIG. 12 depicts a model of how Polθ generates sequence tracts identicalto the initial template in the presence of Mn²⁺. Red, original sequencecopied; black, complement of red sequence. The black complementarysequence may also be generated via templated extension in trans.

FIG. 13, comprising FIG. 13A through FIG. 13D, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ oscillates between three differentmodes of terminal transferase activity during alternative end-joining invitro. FIG. 13A depicts a scheme for reconstitution of Polθ mediatedalt-EJ in vitro (top) and sequences of alt-EJ products generated by Polθin vitro using 10 mM Mg²⁺ and 1 mM Mn²⁺ (bottom). Red text, insertions;black text, original DNA sequence; black and grey underlines, sequencescopied from original template; red underlines, complementary sequencesdue to snap-back replication; red sequence without underlines, randominsertions; superscript 1, suggests sequences were copied from atemplate portion that was subsequently deleted during alt-EJ;superscript 2, suggests sequences were copied from the template in morethan one way. Original DNA sequences indicated at top. Blue type,mutations. FIG. 13B depicts a plot of insertion tract lengths generatedin FIG. 13A. FIG. 13C depicts a chart depicting percent of individualnucleotide insertion events due to non-templated extension, templatedextension in cis and templated extension in trans. t test indicates nosignificant difference between percent of non-templated and templated incis insertions. FIG. 13D depicts models of Polθ activity based onend-joining products 1 and 2 from FIG. 13A.

FIG. 14, comprising FIG. 14A through FIG. 14D, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ oscillates between three differentmodes of terminal transferase activity during alternative end-joining invivo. FIG. 14A depicts a scheme for Polθ mediated alt-EJ ofsite-specific DSBs in mouse embryonic stem cells (top) and sequences ofalt-EJ products generated by Polθ in cells (bottom). FIG. 14B depicts aplot of insertion tract lengths generated in FIG. 14A. FIG. 14C depictsa chart depicting percent of individual nucleotide insertion events dueto non-templated extension, templated extension in cis and templatedextension in trans. t test indicates no significant difference betweenpercent of non-templated and templated in cis insertions. FIG. 14Ddepicts models of Polθ activity based on end-joining products 1 and 2from FIG. 14A.

FIG. 15, comprising FIG. 15A through FIG. 15D, depicts results ofcontrol experiments for Polθ-Mn²⁺ template-independent activity. FIG.15A depicts a schematic of experimental conditions. FIG. 15B depicts amodel of sequential activity of Polθ-Mn²⁺ on a primer-template (top).Sequences generated by Polθ-Mn²⁺ during primer-extension in solid-phasein the presence of 5 mM Mn²⁺. Black sequence, template-dependent; redsequence, template-independent; blue sequence, misincorporation; dash,frameshift mutation. Colored lines, complementary sequences generated bysnap-back replication. FIG. 15C depicts models of Polθ activity on aprimer-template in the presence of Mg²⁺ and Mn²⁺ (top). Denaturing gelsshowing Polθ primer-extension products in the presence of 10 mM Mg²⁺(left) and 5 mM Mn²⁺ (right). FIG. 15d depicts models of Polθ-Mn²⁺activity on a primer-template and ssDNA in the presence of dATP (top).Denaturing gels showing template-dependent (left) andtemplate-independent (right) Polθ-Mn²⁺ activities on a primer-template(left) and primer (right), respectively, in the presence of 5 mM Mn²⁺and dATP.

FIG. 16 depicts results of experiments demonstrating that Polθ-Mn²⁺exhibits de novo DNA and RNA synthesis activities. Depicted aredenaturing gels showing de novo nucleic-acid synthesis by Polθ in thepresence of 5 mM Mn²⁺ and indicated nucleotides.

FIG. 17, comprising FIG. 17A and FIG. 17B, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ-Mn²⁺ exhibits processive terminaltransferase activity. FIG. 17A depicts the schematic of the experiment(left) and a denaturing gel showing inhibition of Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminaltransferase activity by a ssDNA trap (right). FIG. 17B depicts theschematic of the experiment (left) and a denaturing gel showing a timecourse of Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminal transferase activity in the presence andabsence of ssDNA trap (right).

FIG. 18, comprising FIG. 18A through FIG. 18D, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ-Mn²⁺ oscillates between differentterminal transferase activities in the presence of a DNA trap. FIG. 18Adepicts a scheme of experiment performed in solid-phase. FIG. 18Bdepicts a bar graph depicting ssDNA product lengths generated by Polθ inthe presence (orange) and absence (grey) of excess ssDNA with 10 mM Mg²⁺and 1 mM Mn²⁺. FIG. 18C depicts sequences generated by Polθ incubatedwith the indicated ssDNA substrate in the presence of excess ssDNA trapwith 10 mM Mg²⁺, 1 mM Mn²⁺, and all four dNTPs. Black underlines,sequences identical or complementary to initial ssDNA substrate; redunderlines, sequences complementary to ssDNA trap; colored lines abovetext, complementary sequences within individual ssDNA products. FIG. 18Ddepicts sequences generated by Polθ incubated with the indicated ssDNAsubstrate in the absence of excess ssDNA trap with 10 mM Mg²⁺, 1 mMMn²⁺, and all four dNTPs. Black underlines, sequences identical orcomplementary to initial ssDNA substrate; red underlines, sequencescomplementary to ssDNA trap; colored lines above text, complementarysequences within individual ssDNA products.

FIG. 19 depicts results of experiments demonstrating that Polθoscillates between templated and non-templated terminal transferaseactivities in the presence of physiological concentrations of Mg²⁺ andMn²⁺. Sequences generated by Polθ during ssDNA extension in the presenceof 1 mM Mg²⁺ and 50 μM Mn²⁺. Black and grey inderlines, sequencecomplementary to initial ssDNA substrate; red underline, sequenceidentical to initial ssDNA substrate; blue lines, complementary sequencegenerated by snap-back replication; red text without lines, randominsertions. Initial ssDNA sequence indicated at top.

FIG. 20, comprising FIG. 20A through FIG. 20C, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating Polθ mediated alt-EJ in vitro. FIG. 20Adepicts a schematic of alt-EJ reaction and subsequent procedures usedfor amplification and sequencing of endjoining products. Control alt-EJreactions were performed with 10 mM Mg²⁺ and 1 mM Mn²⁺. FIG. 20B depictsnon-denaturing gels showing the products of PCR reactions containingeither purified DNA from alt-EJ reactions performed in the presence ofPolθ and Lig3 (top left), Polθ alone (top middle), and in the absence ofPolθ and Lig3 (top right), or no DNA with primers only (bottom middle).Products in the top middle and top right gels are due to primer-dimerevents as shown in the primers only control (bottom middle gel). Lanes1-8 represent PCR reactions performed at the following respectivetemperatures: 61° C., 60.8° C., 60.4° C., 59.9° C., 59.2° C., 58.6° C.,58.2° C., 58° C. Lanes 9-13 represent PCR reactions performed in theabsence of PCR primers RP435 and RP431 and at the following respectivetemperatures: 61° C., 60.4° C., 59.9° C., 59.2° C, 58.2° C. The absenceof PCR products in lanes 9-13 show that Taq polymerase cannot amplifyoriginal pssDNA templates via endjoining or other mechanisms. FIG. 20Cdepicts a plot showing percent of end-joining products observed incloning vectors following end-joining reactions containing the indicatedproteins. Red, end-joining products with insertions; grey, end-joiningproducts without insertions. n=64 (+Polθ, +Lig3), n=72 (+Polθ, −Lig3),n=12 (−Polθ, −Lig3). End-joining products in the absence of Polθ andLig3 are likely due to infrequent byproducts of PCR.

FIG. 21, comprising FIG. 21A and FIG. 21B, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ acts processively during alt-EJ invitro. FIG. 21A depicts a scheme for reconstitution of Polθ mediatedalt-EJ in vitro with ssDNA trap (top) and sequences of alt-EJ productsgenerated by Polθ in vitro using 10 mM Mg²⁺ and 1 mM Mn²⁺ (bottom). FIG.21B depicts a plot of insertion tract lengths generated in FIG. 21A.

FIG. 22, comprising FIG. 22A through FIG. 22C, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that Polθ generates insertions during alt-EJin the presence of low concentrations of Mg²⁺ and Mn²⁺. FIG. 22A depictsa scheme for reconstitution of Polθ mediated alt-EJ in vitro with 1 mMMg²⁺ and 50 μM Mn²⁺ (top) and sequences of Polθ-mediated alt-EJ productswith insertions >2 bp (bottom). FIG. 22B depicts a plot of insertiontract lengths illustrated in FIG. 22A. FIG. 22C depicts a plot showingpercentage of Polθ-mediated alt-EJ products with and without insertions.n=32.

FIG. 23 depicts results of experiments demonstrating large insertionscopied from remote donor locations. Scheme for Polθ mediated alt-EJ ofsite-specific DSBs in mouse embryonic stem cells (top). Insertionsequences of alt-EJ products generated by Polθ in cells (bottom threepanels). Probable remote donor sites listed at right based on sequencesimilarity. The large templated insertions copied from remote donorlocations are likely due to strand invasion into duplex DNA followed byD-loop extension and dissociation.

FIG. 24, comprising FIG. 24A and FIG. 24B, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating additional sequence analysis of alternativeend-joining products generated in vivo. FIG. 24A depicts a scheme forPolθ mediated alt-EJ of site-specific DSBs in mouse embryonic stem cells(top) and sequences of alt-EJ products generated by Polθ in cells(bottom). FIG. 24B depicts a pie chart of insertion tract lengthsgenerated in vivo. n=118.

FIG. 25, comprising FIG. 25A through FIG. 25F, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating Polθ exhibits preferential terminaltransferase activity on pssDNA. FIG. 25A depicts denaturing gels showingPolθ extension of poly-dC (left) and poly-dT (right) ssDNA with 5 mMMn²⁺ and the indicated dNTPs. FIG. 25B depicts a denaturing gel showingPolθ extension of the indicated ssDNA with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and indicateddNTPs. FIG. 25C depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ extension of theindicated dsDNA with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and indicated dNTPs. FIG. 25D depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ extension of a primer-template with 5 mMMn²⁺ and all four dNTPs. Model of Polθ-Mn²⁺ activity on aprimer-template (right). FIG. 25E depicts a denaturing gel showing Polθextension of the indicated pssDNA with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and indicated dNTPs.FIG. 25F depicts denaturing gels showing Polθ extension of ssDNA modeledafter telomere sequence with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and the indicated dNTPs.

FIG. 26, comprising FIG. 26A and FIG. 26B, depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating a comparison of Polθ and Polθ terminaltransferase activities with Mn²⁺. FIG. 26A depicts a denaturing gelshowing Polθ and Polθ extension of poly-dC in the presence of Mn²⁺ andthe indicated nucleotides. FIG. 26B depicts a denaturing gel showingPolθ and Polμ extension of RP347 ssDNA in the presence of Mn²⁺ and theindicated nucleotides.

FIG. 27, comprising FIG. 27A through FIG. 27G depicts results ofexperiments demonstrating that conserved residues contribute to Polθprocessivity and template-independent terminal transferase activity.

FIG. 27A depicts a sequence alignment of Polθ and related A-family Pols.Conserved positively charged residues (2202, 2254) and loop 2 in Polθare highlighted in yellow and grey, respectively. Black boxes indicateconserved motifs. *=identical residues, :=residues sharing very similarproperties, .=residues sharing some properties. FIG. 27B depicts thestructure of Polθ with ssDNA primer (PDB code 4X0P) (Zahn et al., 2015).Residues R2202 and R2254 are indicated in blue. Dotted blue linesindicate ionic interactions. Loop 2 is indicated in dark red. Thumb andpalm subdomains are indicated. FIG. 27C depicts a denaturing gel showingPolθWT and PolθL2 extension of ssDNA with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and all four dNTPs.FIG. 27D depicts a denaturing gel showing PolθWT and PolθL2 extension ofa primer-template with 5 mM Mn²⁺ and all four dNTPs and a model ofPolθWT-Mn²⁺ and PolθL2-Mn²⁺ activities on a primer-template. FIG. 27Edepicts a denaturing gel showing a time course of PolθWT and PolθRRextension of a primer-template in the presence of 10 mM Mg²⁺ and allfour dNTPs. FIG. 27F depicts a denaturing gel Denaturing gel showingPolθWT (left) and PolθRR (right) extension of poly-dC ssDNA with 5 mMMn²⁺ and the indicated dNTPs. FIG. 27G depicts a schematic of the assayand denaturing Denaturing gel showing PolθWT and PolθRR extension of anexcess of radiolabeled primer-template with all four dNTPs and 10 mMMg²⁺ either in the presence or absence of 150-fold excess unlabeled DNAtrap.

FIG. 28, comprising FIG. 28A through FIG. 28E, depicts a comparison ofPolθ and TdT terminal transferase activities. FIG. 28A depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ (lanes 1-5) and TdT (lanes 6-10)extension of ssDNA with the indicated dNTPs. FIG. 28B depicts adenaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ (lanes 1-6) and TdT (lanes 7-12)extension of ssDNA with the indicated ribonucleotides (rNTPs). FIG. 28Cdepicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ (lanes 1-11) and TdT (lanes12-22) extension of ssDNA with the indicated nucleotide analogsillustrated in FIG. 28D. Boxed lanes indicate nucleotides analogs thatare exclusively transferred by Polθ-Mn²⁺. FIG. 28D depicts Nucleotideanalogs: 1, cy3-dUTP; 2, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP; 3, Biotin-16AA-dUTP; 4,Texas Red-5-dCTP; 5, N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-ATP; 6, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP; 7,4-Thio-UTP; 8, Biotin-16AA-CTP; 9, Ganciclovir Triphosphate; 10,5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate. Underlined nucleotideanalogs (4,5,9) are exclusively transferred by Polθ-Mn²⁺. FIG. 28Edepicts a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ extension of RNA with allfour dNTPs in the presence (lane 3) and absence (lane 2) of unlabeledssDNA (left panel) and a denaturing gel showing Polθ-Mn²⁺ extension ofRNA with the indicated nucleotide analogs (right panel).

FIG. 29 depicts experimental results demonstrating that C. elegans Polθexhibits terminal transferase activity. Shown is a non-denaturing geldemonstrating human Polθ and C. elegans Polθ extension of the indicatedssDNA in the presence of all four dNTPs and the indicated divalentcation and buffer pH.

FIG. 30 depicts experimental results demonstrating that human Polθexhibits efficient terminal transferase activity on long RNA. Shown is anon-denaturing gel showing human Polθ extension of the indicated RNA inthe presence of all four dNTPs in 8.2 pH buffer containing 5 mM Mn²⁺.

FIG. 31 depicts experimental results demonstrating that human Polθefficiently transfers 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-monophosphate(5-bromo-dUMP) to ssDNA. Shown is a non-denaturing gel showing humanPolθ extension of the indicated ssDNA in the presence of all four dNTPs(lane 2) or 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-triphosphate (lane 3) in 8.2 pHbuffer containing 5 mM Mn²⁺. Structure of5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-triphosphate (right).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention is based on the discovery that Polθ possessesrobust template-independent terminal transferase activity on DNA andRNA. In some instances, Polθ possesses robust template-independentterminal transferase activity exclusively in the presence of manganese.In other instances, Polθ possesses robust template-independent terminaltransferase activity exclusively in the presence of cobalt. Under theseconditions, Polθ efficiently transfers deoxyribonucleotides to the 3′terminal end of single-strand DNA (ssDNA), partial ssDNA (pssDNA),double-strand DNA (dsDNA), and single-strand RNA (RNA). Polθ alsoefficiently transfers ribonucleotides and modified nucleotide analogscontaining various large functional groups, such as fluorophores,biotin, and digoxigenin, to DNA and RNA. Unexpectedly, Polθ is moreeffective in transferring ribonucleotides and modified nucleotides tossDNA compared to commercially available terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase (TdT).

Accordingly, the invention provides methods and compositions formodifying the terminal 3′ ends of nucleic acids.

In one embodiment, the method of the invention comprises reacting anA-family polymerase with a nucleic acid to be modified on the 3′terminal end, a substrate to modify the nucleic acid in a reactionsolution comprising a divalent metal, incubating the reaction and thenisolating a 3′-terminal end modified nucleic acid.

In some instances the nucleic acid oligo to be modified is singlestranded DNA (ssDNA), double stranded DNA (dsDNA), partial ssDNA(psDNA), RNA, or telomeric ssDNA.

In one embodiment, the A-family polymerase is Polθ. In some embodiments,the A-family polymerase is a fragment of Polθ. In certain embodimentsthe fragment of Polθ is Polθ₁₇₉₂₋₂₅₉₀, represented by SEQ ID NO 1. Incertain embodiments Polθ is encoded by the human POLQ gene. In otherembodiments Polθ is encoded by the C. elegans polq-1 gene.

In one embodiment, the substrate is a nucleotide. In some embodimentsthe deoxyribonucleotide is dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dATP, or dUTP. In someembodiments the ribonucleotide is ATP, GTP, CTP, or UTP. In otherembodiments the nucleotide is modified. In certain non-limitingembodiments, the modified nucleotide may be cy3-dUTP,Digoxigenin-11-dUTP, Biotin-16AA-dUTP, Texas Red-5-dCTP, Cyanine3-AA-UTP, 4-Thio-UTP, Biotin-16-AACTP, Ganciclovir Triphosphate,N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-adenosine-5′-triphosphate, and5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate. In some embodiments thesubstrate can be any combination of nucleotides and modifiednucleotides.

In one embodiment the divalent metal is Mn²⁺ or Co′. In one embodiment,the concentration of the divalent metal in the reaction solution isabout 1-50 mM with about 2-5 mM being preferred and about 5 mM beingmost preferred.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises a buffer. Incertain embodiments the buffer is MES/TRIS. In one embodiment, theconcentration of the buffer in the reaction solution is about 20-100 mMwith about 20 mM being preferred. In yet another embodiment the pH ofthe buffer is about 6.5-8.8, with a pH of about 7-8.2 being preferredand a pH of about 8.2 being more preferred.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises glycerol. Inone embodiment, the concentration of glycerol in the reaction solutionis about 0-20% with about 10% being preferred.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises a non-ionicdetergent. In certain embodiments the non-ionic detergent is NP-40. Insome embodiments, the concentration of the non-ionic detergent in thereaction solution is about 0-1% with about 0.1% being preferred.

In one embodiment the reaction mixture is incubated for at least 2hours. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is incubated at atemperature of about 25° C.-42° C. In another embodiment the reactionmixture is incubated at a temperature of about 42° C.

The invention also provides a kit for modifying a 3′ terminal end of anucleic acid with a substrate. In one embodiment the kit comprises anA-family polymerase and a reaction solution. In another embodiment thekit further comprises the substrate.

In one embodiment the A-family polymerase is Polθ.

In one embodiment the reaction solution comprises 5 mM Mn²⁺, 20 mM TrisHCl pH 8.2, 10% glycerol, 0.01% NP-40 and 0.1 mg/mL BSA.

DEFINITIONS

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used inthe practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methodsand materials are described.

As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associatedwith it in this section.

The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to morethan one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of thearticle. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more thanone element.

“About” as used herein when referring to a measurable value such as anamount, a temporal duration, and the like, is meant to encompassnon-limiting variations of ±40% or ±20% or ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, or ±0.1% fromthe specified value, as such variations are appropriate.

“Amplification” refers to any means by which a polynucleotide sequenceis copied and thus expanded into a larger number of polynucleotidemolecules, e.g., by reverse transcription, polymerase chain reaction,and ligase chain reaction, among others. Amplification ofpolynucleotides encompasses a variety of chemical and enzymaticprocesses. The generation of multiple DNA copies from one or a fewcopies of a target or template DNA molecule during a polymerase chainreaction (PCR) or a ligase chain reaction (LCR) are forms ofamplification. Amplification is not limited to the strict duplication ofthe starting molecule. For example, the generation of multiple cDNAmolecules from a limited amount of RNA in a sample using reversetranscription (RT)-PCR is a form of amplification. Furthermore, thegeneration of multiple RNA molecules from a single DNA molecule duringthe process of transcription is also a form of amplification.

“Complementary” refers to the broad concept of sequence complementaritybetween regions of two nucleic acid strands or between two regions ofthe same nucleic acid strand. It is known that an adenine residue of afirst nucleic acid region is capable of forming specific hydrogen bonds(“base pairing”) with a residue of a second nucleic acid region which isantiparallel to the first region if the residue is thymine or uracil.Similarly, it is known that a cytosine residue of a first nucleic acidstrand is capable of base pairing with a residue of a second nucleicacid strand which is antiparallel to the first strand if the residue isguanine. A first region of a nucleic acid is complementary to a secondregion of the same or a different nucleic acid if, when the two regionsare arranged in an antiparallel fashion, at least one nucleotide residueof the first region is capable of base pairing with a residue of thesecond region. Preferably, the first region comprises a first portionand the second region comprises a second portion, whereby, when thefirst and second portions are arranged in an antiparallel fashion, atleast about 50%, and preferably at least about 75%, at least about 90%,or at least about 95% of the nucleotide residues of the first portionare capable of base pairing with nucleotide residues in the secondportion. More preferably, all nucleotide residues of the first portionare capable of base pairing with nucleotide residues in the secondportion.

“Encoding” refers to the inherent property of specific sequences ofnucleotides in a polynucleotide, such as a gene, a cDNA, or an mRNA, toserve as templates for synthesis of other polymers and macromolecules inbiological processes having either a defined sequence of nucleotides(i.e., rRNA, tRNA and mRNA) or a defined sequence of amino acids and thebiological properties resulting therefrom. Thus, a gene encodes aprotein if transcription and translation of mRNA corresponding to thatgene produces the protein in a cell or other biological system. Both thecoding strand, the nucleotide sequence of which is identical to the mRNAsequence and is usually provided in sequence listings, and thenon-coding strand, used as the template for transcription of a gene orcDNA, can be referred to as encoding the protein or other product ofthat gene or cDNA. Unless otherwise specified, a “nucleotide sequenceencoding an amino acid sequence” includes all nucleotide sequences thatare degenerate versions of each other and that encode the same aminoacid sequence. Nucleotide sequences that encode proteins and RNA mayinclude introns.

As used herein, the term “fragment,” as applied to a nucleic acid,refers to a subsequence of a larger nucleic acid. A “fragment” of anucleic acid can be at least about 15 nucleotides in length; forexample, at least about 50 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides; atleast about 100 to about 500 nucleotides, at least about 500 to about1000 nucleotides, at least about 1000 nucleotides to about 1500nucleotides; or about 1500 nucleotides to about 2500 nucleotides; orabout 2500 nucleotides (and any integer value in between).

“Homologous, homology” or “identical, identity” as used herein, refer tocomparisons among amino acid and nucleic acid sequences. When referringto nucleic acid molecules, “homology,” “identity,” or “percentidentical” refers to the percent of the nucleotides of the subjectnucleic acid sequence that have been matched to identical nucleotides bya sequence analysis program. Homology can be readily calculated by knownmethods. Nucleic acid sequences and amino acid sequences can be comparedusing computer programs that align the similar sequences of the nucleicor amino acids and thus define the differences. In preferredmethodologies, the BLAST programs (NCBI) and parameters used therein areemployed, and the ExPaSy is used to align sequence fragments of genomicDNA sequences. However, equivalent alignment assessments can be obtainedthrough the use of any standard alignment software.

As used herein, “homologous” refers to the subunit sequence similaritybetween two polymeric molecules, e.g., between two nucleic acidmolecules, e.g., two DNA molecules or two RNA molecules, or between twopolypeptide molecules. When a subunit position in both of the twomolecules is occupied by the same subunit, e.g., if a position in eachof two DNA molecules is occupied by adenine, then they are homologous atthat position. The homology between two sequences is a direct functionof the number of matching or homologous positions, e.g., if half (e.g.,five positions in a polymer ten subunits in length) of the positions intwo compound sequences are homologous then the two sequences are 50%homologous, if 90% of the positions, e.g., 9 of 10, are matched orhomologous, the two sequences share 90% homology. By way of example, theDNA sequences 5′ATTGCC 3′ and 5′ TATGGC 3′ share 50% homology.

“Hybridization probes” are oligonucleotides capable of binding in abase-specific manner to a complementary strand of nucleic acid. Suchprobes include peptide nucleic acids, as described in Nielsen et al.,1991, Science 254, 1497-1500, and other nucleic acid analogs and nucleicacid mimetics. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,501.

The term “hybridization” refers to the process in which twosingle-stranded nucleic acids bind non-covalently to form adouble-stranded nucleic acid; triple-stranded hybridization is alsotheoretically possible. Complementary sequences in the nucleic acidspair with each other to form a double helix. The resultingdouble-stranded nucleic acid is a “hybrid.” Hybridization may bebetween, for example, two complementary or partially complementarysequences. The hybrid may have double-stranded regions and singlestranded regions. The hybrid may be, for example, DNA:DNA, RNA:DNA orDNA:RNA. Hybrids may also be formed between modified nucleic acids. Oneor both of the nucleic acids may be immobilized on a solid support.Hybridization techniques may be used to detect and isolate specificsequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one orboth strands.

The stability of a hybrid depends on a variety of factors including thelength of complementarity, the presence of mismatches within thecomplementary region, the temperature and the concentration of salt inthe reaction. Hybridizations are usually performed under stringentconditions, for example, at a salt concentration of no more than 1 M anda temperature of at least 25° C. For example, conditions of 5×SSPE (750mM NaCl, 50 mM Na Phosphate, 5 mM EDTA, pH 7.4) or 100 mM MES, 1 M Na,20 mM EDTA, 0.01% Tween-20 and a temperature of 25-50° C. are suitablefor allele-specific probe hybridizations. In a particularly preferredembodiment, hybridizations are performed at 40-50° C. Acetylated BSA andherring sperm DNA may be added to hybridization reactions. Hybridizationconditions suitable for microarrays are described in the Gene ExpressionTechnical Manual and the GeneChip Mapping Assay Manual available fromAffymetrix (Santa Clara, Calif.).

A first oligonucleotide anneals with a second oligonucleotide with “highstringency” if the two oligonucleotides anneal under conditions wherebyonly oligonucleotides which are at least about 75%, and preferably atleast about 90% or at least about 95%, complementary anneal with oneanother. The stringency of conditions used to anneal twooligonucleotides is a function of, among other factors, temperature,ionic strength of the annealing medium, the incubation period, thelength of the oligonucleotides, the G-C content of the oligonucleotides,and the expected degree of non-homology between the twooligonucleotides, if known. Methods of adjusting the stringency ofannealing conditions are known (see, e.g. Sambrook et al., 2012,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.).

As used herein, an “instructional material” includes a publication, arecording, a diagram, or any other medium of expression which can beused to communicate the usefulness of a compound, composition, vector,or delivery system of the invention in the kit for effecting alleviationof the various diseases or disorders recited herein. Optionally, oralternately, the instructional material can describe one or more methodsof alleviating the diseases or disorders in a cell or a tissue of amammal. The instructional material of the kit of the invention can, forexample, be affixed to a container which contains the identifiedcompound, composition, vector, or delivery system of the invention or beshipped together with a container which contains the identifiedcompound, composition, vector, or delivery system. Alternatively, theinstructional material can be shipped separately from the container withthe intention that the instructional material and the compound be usedcooperatively by the recipient.

As used herein, “isolate” refers to a nucleic acid obtained from anindividual, or from a sample obtained from an individual. The nucleicacid may be analyzed at any time after it is obtained (e.g., before orafter laboratory culture, before or after amplification.)

As used herein, the term “purified” or “to purify” refers to the removalof components (e.g., contaminants) from a sample. For example, nucleicacids are purified by removal of contaminating cellular proteins orother undesired nucleic acid species. The removal of contaminantsresults in an increase in the percentage of desired nucleic acid in thesample.

The term “label” when used herein refers to a detectable compound orcomposition that is conjugated directly or indirectly to a probe togenerate a “labeled” probe. The label may be detectable by itself (e.g.radioisotope labels or fluorescent labels) or, in the case of anenzymatic label, may catalyze chemical alteration of a substratecompound or composition that is detectable (e.g., avidin-biotin). Insome instances, primers can be labeled to detect a PCR product.

The term “mismatch,” “mismatch control” or “mismatch probe” refers to anucleic acid whose sequence is not perfectly complementary to aparticular target sequence. The mismatch may comprise one or more bases.While the mismatch(es) may be located anywhere in the mismatch probe,terminal mismatches are less desirable because a terminal mismatch isless likely to prevent hybridization of the target sequence. In aparticularly preferred embodiment, the mismatch is located at or nearthe center of the probe such that the mismatch is most likely todestabilize the duplex with the target sequence under the testhybridization conditions.

As used herein, the term “nucleic acid” refers to bothnaturally-occurring molecules such as DNA and RNA, but also variousderivatives and analogs. Generally, the probes, hairpin linkers, andtarget polynucleotides of the present teachings are nucleic acids, andtypically comprise DNA. Additional derivatives and analogs can beemployed as will be appreciated by one having ordinary skill in the art.

The term “nucleotide base”, as used herein, refers to a substituted orunsubstituted aromatic ring or rings. In certain embodiments, thearomatic ring or rings contain at least one nitrogen atom. In certainembodiments, the nucleotide base is capable of forming Watson-Crickand/or Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds with an appropriately complementarynucleotide base. Exemplary nucleotide bases and analogs thereof include,but are not limited to, naturally occurring nucleotide bases adenine,guanine, cytosine, 6 methyl-cytosine, uracil, thymine, and analogs ofthe naturally occurring nucleotide bases, e.g., 7-deazaadenine,7-deazaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaguanine, 7-deaza-8-azaadenine, N6 delta2-isopentenyladenine (6iA), N6-delta 2-isopentenyl-2-methylthioadenine(2 ms6iA), N2-dimethylguanine (dmG), 7methylguanine (7 mG), inosine,nebularine, 2-aminopurine, 2-amino-6-chloropurine, 2,6-diaminopurine,hypoxanthine, pseudouridine, pseudocytosine, pseudoisocytosine,5-propynylcytosine, isocytosine, isoguanine, 7-deazaguanine,2-thiopyrimidine, 6-thioguanine, 4-thiothymine, 4-thiouracil,06-methylguanine, N6-methyladenine, 04-methylthymine,5,6-dihydrothymine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, pyrazolo[3,4-D]pyrimidines (see,e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,143,877 and 6,127,121 and PCT publishedapplication WO 01/38584), ethenoadenine, indoles such as nitroindole and4-methylindole, and pyrroles such as nitropyrrole. Certain exemplarynucleotide bases can be found, e.g., in Fasman, 1989, Practical Handbookof Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, pp. 385-394, CRC Press, BocaRaton, Fla., and the references cited therein.

The term “nucleotide”, as used herein, refers to a compound comprising anucleotide base linked to the C-1′ carbon of a sugar, such as ribose,arabinose, xylose, and pyranose, and sugar analogs thereof. The termnucleotide also encompasses nucleotide analogs. The sugar may besubstituted or unsubstituted. Substituted ribose sugars include, but arenot limited to, those riboses in which one or more of the carbon atoms,for example the 2′-carbon atom, is substituted with one or more of thesame or different Cl, F, —R, —OR, —NR2 or halogen groups, where each Ris independently H, C1-C6 alkyl or C5-C14 aryl. Exemplary ribosesinclude, but are not limited to, 2′-(C1-C6)alkoxyribose,2′-(C5-C14)aryloxyribose, 2′,3′-didehydroribose, 2′-deoxy-3′-haloribose,2′-deoxy-3′-fluororibose, 2′-deoxy-3′-chlororibose,2′-deoxy-3′-aminoribose, 2′-deoxy-3′-(C1-C6)alkylribose,2′-deoxy-3′-(C1-C6)alkoxyribose and 2′-deoxy-3′-(C5-C14)aryloxyribose,ribose, 2′-deoxyribose, 2′,3′-dideoxyribose, 2′-haloribose,2′-fluororibose, 2′-chlororibose, and 2′-alkylribose, e.g., 2′-O-methyl,4′-anomeric nucleotides, 1′-anomeric nucleotides, 2′-4′- and3′-4′-linked and other “locked” or “LNA”, bicyclic sugar modifications(see, e.g., PCT published application nos. WO 98/22489, WO 98/39352; andWO 99/14226). The term “nucleic acid” typically refers to largepolynucleotides.

The term “nucleotide analogs” as used herein refers to modified ornon-naturally occurring nucleotides including, but not limited to,analogs that have altered stacking interactions such as 7-deaza purines(i.e., 7-deaza-dATP and 7-deaza-dGTP); base analogs with alternativehydrogen bonding configurations (e.g., such as Iso-C and Iso-G and othernon-standard base pairs described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,001,983 to S.Benner and herein incorporated by reference); non-hydrogen bondinganalogs (e.g., non-polar, aromatic nucleoside analogs such as2,4-difluorotoluene, described by B. A. Schweitzer and E. T. Kool, J.Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 7238-7242; B. A. Schweitzer and E. T. Kool, J. Am.Chem. Soc., 1995, 117, 1863-1872); “universal” bases such as5-nitroindole and 3-nitropyrrole; and universal purines and pyrimidines(such as “K” and “P” nucleotides, respectively; P. Kong, et al., NucleicAcids Res., 1989, 17, 10373-10383, P. Kong et al., Nucleic Acids Res.,1992, 20, 5149-5152). Nucleotide analogs include nucleotides having oneor more modification son the phosphate moiety, base moiety or sugarmoiety, such as dideoxy nucleotides and 2′-O-methyl nucleotides.Nucleotide analogs include modified forms of deoxyribo-nucleotides aswell as ribonucleotides.

The term “oligonucleotide” typically refers to short polynucleotides,generally, no greater than about 50 nucleotides. It will be understoodthat when a nucleotide sequence is represented by a DNA sequence (i.e.,A, T, G, C), this also includes an RNA sequence (i.e., A, U, G, C) inwhich “U” replaces “T.”

The term “polynucleotide” as used herein is defined as a chain ofnucleotides. Furthermore, nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.Thus, nucleic acids and polynucleotides as used herein areinterchangeable. One skilled in the art has the general knowledge thatnucleic acids are polynucleotides, which can be hydrolyzed into themonomeric “nucleotides.” The monomeric nucleotides can be hydrolyzedinto nucleosides. As used herein polynucleotides include, but are notlimited to, all nucleic acid sequences which are obtained by any meansavailable in the art, including, without limitation, recombinant means,i.e., the cloning of nucleic acid sequences from a recombinant libraryor a cell genome, using ordinary cloning and amplification technology,and the like, and by synthetic means. An “oligonucleotide” as usedherein refers to a short polynucleotide, typically less than 100 basesin length.

Conventional notation is used herein to describe polynucleotidesequences: the left-hand end of a single-stranded polynucleotidesequence is the 5′-end. The DNA strand having the same sequence as anmRNA is referred to as the “coding strand”; sequences on the DNA strandwhich are located 5′ to a reference point on the DNA are referred to as“upstream sequences”; sequences on the DNA strand which are 3′ to areference point on the DNA are referred to as “downstream sequences.” Inthe sequences described herein:

A=adenine,

G=guanine,

T=thymine,

C=cytosine,

U=uracil,

H=A, C or T/U,

R=A or G,

M=A or C,

K=G or T/U,

S=G or C,

Y=C or T/U,

W=A or T/U,

B=G or C or T/U,

D=A or G, or T/U,

V=A or G or C,

N=A or G or C or T/U.

The skilled artisan will understand that all nucleic acid sequences setforth herein throughout in their forward orientation, are also useful inthe compositions and methods of the invention in their reverseorientation, as well as in their forward and reverse complementaryorientation, and are described herein as well as if they were explicitlyset forth herein.

“Primer” refers to a polynucleotide that is capable of specificallyhybridizing to a designated polynucleotide template and providing apoint of initiation for synthesis of a complementary polynucleotide.Such synthesis occurs when the polynucleotide primer is placed underconditions in which synthesis is induced, e.g., in the presence ofnucleotides, a complementary polynucleotide template, and an agent forpolymerization such as DNA polymerase. A primer is typicallysingle-stranded, but may be double-stranded. Primers are typicallydeoxyribonucleic acids, but a wide variety of synthetic and naturallyoccurring primers are useful for many applications. A primer iscomplementary to the template to which it is designed to hybridize toserve as a site for the initiation of synthesis, but need not reflectthe exact sequence of the template. In such a case, specifichybridization of the primer to the template depends on the stringency ofthe hybridization conditions. Primers can be labeled with a detectablelabel, e.g., chromogenic, radioactive, or fluorescent moieties and usedas detectable moieties. Examples of fluorescent moieties include, butare not limited to, rare earth chelates (europium chelates), Texas Red,rhodamine, fluorescein, dansyl, phycocrytherin, phycocyanin, spectrumorange, spectrum green, and/or derivatives of any one or more of theabove. Other detectable moieties include digoxigenin and biotin.

As used herein a “probe” is defined as a nucleic acid capable of bindingto a target nucleic acid of complementary sequence through one or moretypes of chemical bonds, usually through complementary base pairing,usually through hydrogen bond formation. As used herein, a probe mayinclude natural (i.e. A, G, U, C, or T) or modified bases(7-deazaguanosine, inosine, etc.). In addition, a linkage other than aphosphodiester bond may join the bases in probes, so long as it does notinterfere with hybridization. Thus, probes may be peptide nucleic acidsin which the constituent bases are joined by peptide bonds rather thanphosphodiester linkages. The term “match,” “perfect match,” “perfectmatch probe” or “perfect match control” refers to a nucleic acid thathas a sequence that is perfectly complementary to a particular targetsequence. The nucleic acid is typically perfectly complementary to aportion (subsequence) of the target sequence. A perfect match (PM) probecan be a “test probe”, a “normalization control” probe, an expressionlevel control probe and the like. A perfect match control or perfectmatch is, however, distinguished from a “mismatch” or “mismatch probe.”

The term “target” as used herein refers to a molecule that has anaffinity for a given probe. Targets may be naturally-occurring orman-made molecules. Also, they can be employed in their unaltered stateor as aggregates with other species. Targets may be attached, covalentlyor noncovalently, to a binding member, either directly or via a specificbinding substance. Examples of targets which can be employed by thisinvention include, but are not restricted to, oligonucleotides andnucleic acids.

“Variant” as the term is used herein, is a nucleic acid sequence or apeptide sequence that differs in sequence from a reference nucleic acidsequence or peptide sequence respectively, but retains essentialproperties of the reference molecule. Changes in the sequence of anucleic acid variant may not alter the amino acid sequence of a peptideencoded by the reference nucleic acid, or may result in amino acidsubstitutions, additions, deletions, fusions and truncations. A variantof a nucleic acid or peptide can be a naturally occurring such as anallelic variant, or can be a variant that is not known to occurnaturally. Non-naturally occurring variants of nucleic acids andpeptides may be made by mutagenesis techniques or by direct synthesis.

Ranges: throughout this disclosure, various aspects of the invention canbe presented in a range format. It should be understood that thedescription in range format is merely for convenience and brevity andshould not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of theinvention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be consideredto have specifically disclosed all the possible subranges as well asindividual numerical values within that range. For example, descriptionof a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to have specificallydisclosed subranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5, from2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well as individual numberswithin that range, for example, 1, 2, 2.7, 3, 4, 5, 5.3, and 6. Thisapplies regardless of the breadth of the range.

DESCRIPTION

The invention provides compositions and method for modifying 3′ terminalends of DNA and RNA using Polθ. In one embodiment, the inventionprovides a method for modification of the 3′ terminal ends of a nucleicacid with a substrate by Polθ.

In one embodiment, the Polθ possesses robust template-independentterminal transferase activity exclusively in the presence of manganese.In another embodiment, Polθ possesses robust template-independentterminal transferase activity exclusively in the presence of cobalt. Inone embodiment, the Polθ of the invention is more effective intransferring ribonucleotides and modified nucleotides to ssDNA comparedto commercially available terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT).In one embodiment Polθ synthesizes a nucleic acid containing a specificsequence.

Genetic Modification

In one embodiment, the invention provides recombinant Polθ. In someaspects, the invention includes an isolated protein (e.g. Polθ), whereinthe protein is used to modify 3′-terminal ends of nucleic acids. In someembodiments, the isolated protein is an A family polymerase. In otherembodiments, the protein is Polθ. In yet another embodiment, the proteinis a fragment or active mutant of Polθ. In certain embodiments, theprotein is Polθ₁₇₉₂₋₂₅₉₀ having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO 1.

In one embodiment, the invention included a recombinant Polθ. Thus, theinvention encompasses compositions and methods for producing recombinantPolθ, including but is not limited to, expression vectors, methods forthe introduction of exogenous DNA into cells with concomitant expressionof the exogenous DNA in the cells, and methods of protein modification,expression and isolation, such as those described, for example, inSambrook et al. (2001, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, ColdSpring Harbor Laboratory, New York), and in Ausubel et al. (1997,Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York). Insome embodiments Polθ is encoded by the human POLQ gene. In someembodiments Polθ is encoded by the C. elegans polq-1 gene. In someembodiments Polθ is encoded by the mouse Polq gene.

In some embodiments, the protein is a fragment or mutant of a proteinwhich is able to modify the 3′-terminal DNA end. Therefore, anotherembodiment of the invention is to provide an isolated nucleic acidmolecule that code for the protein fragment or the mutated protein.According to the invention, the protein fragment or mutated protein isobtained by mutating the wild type protein coding sequence. Themutagenesis technique could be by chemical, error prone PCR orsite-directed approach. The suitable technique can be selected and usedfor introducing mutations and the mutated nucleic acid molecule can becloned and expressed and the transferase activity of the protein can bedetermined.

The isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding the protein fragment ormutated protein can be obtained using any of the many recombinantmethods known in the art, such as, for example by screening librariesfrom cells expressing the gene, by deriving the gene from a vector knownto include the same, or by isolating directly from cells and tissuescontaining the same, using standard techniques. Alternatively, the geneof interest can be produced synthetically, rather than cloned.

The isolated nucleic acid may comprise any type of nucleic acid,including, but not limited to DNA and RNA. For example, in oneembodiment, the composition comprises an isolated DNA molecule,including for example, an isolated cDNA molecule, encoding the mutatedprotein, or functional fragment thereof. In one embodiment, thecomposition comprises an isolated RNA molecule encoding the mutatedprotein, or a functional fragment thereof.

The desired polynucleotide can be cloned into a number of types ofvectors. However, the present invention should not be construed to belimited to any particular vector. Instead, the present invention shouldbe construed to encompass a wide plethora of vectors which are readilyavailable and/or well-known in the art. For example, a desiredpolynucleotide of the invention can be cloned into a vector including,but not limited to a plasmid, a phagemid, a phage derivative, an animalvirus, and a cosmid. Vectors of particular interest include expressionvectors, replication vectors, probe generation vectors, and sequencingvectors.

In specific embodiments, the expression vector is selected from thegroup consisting of a viral vector, a bacterial vector and a mammaliancell vector. Numerous expression vector systems exist that comprise atleast a part or all of the compositions discussed above. Prokaryote-and/or eukaryote-vector based systems can be employed for use with thepresent invention to produce polynucleotides, or their cognatepolypeptides. Many such systems are commercially and widely available.

Further, the expression vector may be provided to a cell in the form ofa viral vector. Viral vector technology is well known in the art and isdescribed, for example, in Sambrook et al. (2001), and in Ausubel et al.(1997), and in other virology and molecular biology manuals. Viruses,which are useful as vectors include, but are not limited to,retroviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, herpes viruses,and lentiviruses. In general, a suitable vector contains an origin ofreplication functional in at least one organism, a promoter sequence,convenient restriction endonuclease sites, and one or more selectablemarkers. (See, e.g., WO 01/96584; WO 01/29058; and U.S. Pat. No.6,326,193.

For expression of the desired polynucleotide, at least one module ineach promoter functions to position the start site for RNA synthesis.The best known example of this is the TATA box, but in some promoterslacking a TATA box, such as the promoter for the mammalian terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase gene and the promoter for the SV40 genes, adiscrete element overlying the start site itself helps to fix the placeof initiation.

Additional promoter elements, i.e., enhancers, regulate the frequency oftranscriptional initiation. Typically, these are located in the region30-110 bp upstream of the start site, although a number of promotershave recently been shown to contain functional elements downstream ofthe start site as well. The spacing between promoter elements frequentlyis flexible, so that promoter function is preserved when elements areinverted or moved relative to one another. In the thymidine kinase (tk)promoter, the spacing between promoter elements can be increased to 50bp apart before activity begins to decline. Depending on the promoter,it appears that individual elements can function either co-operativelyor independently to activate transcription.

A promoter may be one naturally associated with a gene or polynucleotidesequence, as may be obtained by isolating the 5′ non-coding sequenceslocated upstream of the coding segment and/or exon. Such a promoter canbe referred to as “endogenous.” Similarly, an enhancer may be onenaturally associated with a polynucleotide sequence, located eitherdownstream or upstream of that sequence. Alternatively, certainadvantages will be gained by positioning the coding polynucleotidesegment under the control of a recombinant or heterologous promoter,which refers to a promoter that is not normally associated with apolynucleotide sequence in its natural environment. A recombinant orheterologous enhancer refers also to an enhancer not normally associatedwith a polynucleotide sequence in its natural environment. Suchpromoters or enhancers may include promoters or enhancers of othergenes, and promoters or enhancers isolated from any other prokaryotic,viral, or eukaryotic cell, and promoters or enhancers not “naturallyoccurring,” i.e., containing different elements of differenttranscriptional regulatory regions, and/or mutations that alterexpression. In addition to producing nucleic acid sequences of promotersand enhancers synthetically, sequences may be produced using recombinantcloning and/or nucleic acid amplification technology, including PCR™, inconnection with the compositions disclosed herein (U.S. Pat. Nos.4,683,202, 5,928,906). Furthermore, it is contemplated the controlsequences that direct transcription and/or expression of sequenceswithin non-nuclear organelles such as fmitochondria, chloroplasts, andthe like, can be employed as well.

Naturally, it will be important to employ a promoter and/or enhancerthat effectively directs the expression of the DNA segment in the celltype, organelle, and organism chosen for expression. Those of skill inthe art of molecular biology generally know how to use promoters,enhancers, and cell type combinations for protein expression, forexample, see Sambrook et al. (2001). The promoters employed may beconstitutive, tissue-specific, inducible, and/or useful under theappropriate conditions to direct high level expression of the introducedDNA segment, such as is advantageous in the large-scale production ofrecombinant proteins and/or peptides. The promoter may be heterologousor endogenous.

One such promoter sequence is the immediate early cytomegalovirus (CMV)promoter sequence. This promoter sequence is a strong constitutivepromoter sequence capable of driving high levels of expression of anypolynucleotide sequence operatively linked thereto. However, otherconstitutive promoter sequences may also be used, including, but notlimited to the simian virus 40 (SV40) early promoter, mouse mammarytumor virus (MMTV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) long terminalrepeat (LTR) promoter, Moloney virus promoter, the avian leukemia viruspromoter, Epstein-Barr virus immediate early promoter, Rous sarcomavirus promoter, as well as human gene promoters such as, but not limitedto, the actin promoter, the myosin promoter, the hemoglobin promoter,and the muscle creatine promoter. Further, the invention should not belimited to the use of constitutive promoters. Inducible promoters arealso contemplated as part of the invention. The use of an induciblepromoter in the invention provides a molecular switch capable of turningon expression of the polynucleotide sequence which it is operativelylinked when such expression is desired, or turning off the expressionwhen expression is not desired. Examples of inducible promoters include,but are not limited to a metallothionine promoter, a glucocorticoidpromoter, a progesterone promoter, and a tetracycline promoter. Further,the invention includes the use of a tissue specific promoter, whichpromoter is active only in a desired tissue. Tissue specific promotersare well known in the art and include, but are not limited to, the HER-2promoter and the PSA associated promoter sequences.

In the context of an expression vector, the vector can be readilyintroduced into a host cell, e.g., mammalian, bacterial, yeast or insectcell by any method in the art. For example, the expression vector can betransferred into a host cell by physical, chemical or biological means.It is readily understood that the introduction of the expression vectorcomprising the polynucleotide of the invention yields a silenced cellwith respect to a regulator.

Physical methods for introducing a polynucleotide into a host cellinclude calcium phosphate precipitation, lipofection, particlebombardment, microinjection, electroporation, and the like. Methods forproducing cells comprising vectors and/or exogenous nucleic acids arewell-known in the art. See, for example, Sambrook et al. (2001,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory,New York), and in Ausubel et al. (1997, Current Protocols in MolecularBiology, John Wiley & Sons, New York).

Biological methods for introducing a polynucleotide of interest into ahost cell include the use of DNA and RNA vectors. Viral vectors, andespecially retroviral vectors, have become the most widely used methodfor inserting genes into mammalian, e.g., human cells. Other viralvectors can be derived from lentivirus, poxviruses, herpes simplex virusI, adenoviruses and adeno-associated viruses, and the like. See, forexample, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,350,674 and 5,585,362.

Chemical means for introducing a polynucleotide into a host cell includecolloidal dispersion systems, such as macromolecule complexes,nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems includingoil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. Apreferred colloidal system for use as a delivery vehicle in vitro and invivo is a liposome (i.e., an artificial membrane vesicle). Thepreparation and use of such systems is well known in the art.

Regardless of the method used to introduce exogenous nucleic acids intoa host cell, in order to confirm the presence of the recombinant DNAsequence in the host cell, a variety of assays may be performed. Suchassays include, for example, “molecular biological” assays well known tothose of skill in the art, such as Southern and Northern blotting,RT-PCR and PCR; “biochemical” assays, such as detecting the presence orabsence of a particular peptide, e.g., by immunological means (ELISAsand Western blots) or by assays described herein to identify agentsfalling within the scope of the invention.

Any DNA vector or delivery vehicle can be utilized to transfer thedesired polynucleotide to a cell in vitro or in vivo. In the case wherea non-viral delivery system is utilized, a preferred delivery vehicle isa liposome. The above-mentioned delivery systems and protocols thereforecan be found in Gene Targeting Protocols, 2ed., pp 1-35 (2002) and GeneTransfer and Expression Protocols, Vol. 7, Murray ed., pp 81-89 (1991).

“Liposome” is a generic term encompassing a variety of single andmultilamellar lipid vehicles formed by the generation of enclosed lipidbilayers or aggregates. Liposomes may be characterized as havingvesicular structures with a phospholipid bilayer membrane and an inneraqueous medium. Multilamellar liposomes have multiple lipid layersseparated by aqueous medium. They form spontaneously when phospholipidsare suspended in an excess of aqueous solution. The lipid componentsundergo self-rearrangement before the formation of closed structures andentrap water and dissolved solutes between the lipid bilayers (Ghosh andBachhawat, 1991). However, the present invention also encompassescompositions that have different structures in solution than the normalvesicular structure. For example, the lipids may assume a micellarstructure or merely exist as nonuniform aggregates of lipid molecules.Also contemplated are lipofectamine nucleic acid complexes.

Transformation refers to the transfer of a nucleic acid (e.g., exogenousnucleic acid) into the genome of a host microorganism, resulting ingenetically stable inheritance. Host microorganisms containing thetransformed nucleic acid are referred to as “non-naturally occurring” or“recombinant” or “transformed” or “transgenic” microorganisms. Hostmicroorganisms may be selected from, and the non-naturally occurringmicroorganisms generated in, any prokaryotic or eukaryotic microbialspecies from the domains of Archaea, Bacteria, or Eukarya. Exemplarybacteria include Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca,Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes,Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Rhizobium etli, Bacillus subtilis,Corynebacterium glutamicum, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis,Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor,Clostridium acetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonasputida. Exemplary yeasts or fungal species include Saccharomycescerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis,Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger,Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizopus oryzae, Candida, Yarrowia, Hansenula, Pichiapastoris, Torulopsis, Rhodotorula and Yarrowia lipolytica. It isunderstood that any suitable host microorganism can be used to introducesuitable genetic modifications (e.g., an exogenous nucleic acid encodingan enzyme with methane monooxygenase activity that is stable in thepresence of a chemical or environmental stress) to produce anon-naturally occurring microorganism as provided in the specification.

Reference proteins or nucleic acids, also known as “wild type” or“parent” proteins and nucleic acids are used as starting molecules forgenetic engineering of variant enzymes with the desired stability.

Expression of recombinant proteins is often difficult outside theiroriginal host. For example, variation in codon usage bias has beenobserved across different species of bacteria (Sharp et al., 2005, Nucl.Acids. Res. 33:1141-1153). Over-expression of recombinant proteins evenwithin their native host may also be difficult. In certain embodimentsof the invention, nucleic acids (e.g., a nucleic acid encoding an enzymewith transferase activity that is stable in the presence of a chemicalor environmental stress) that are to be introduced into microorganismsaccording to any of the embodiments disclosed herein may undergo codonoptimization to enhance protein expression. Codon optimization refers toalteration of codons in genes or coding regions of nucleic acids fortransformation of an organism to reflect the typical codon usage of thehost organism without altering the polypeptide for which the DNAencodes. Codon optimization methods for optimum gene expression inheterologous organisms are known in the art and have been previouslydescribed (see., e.g., Welch et al., 2009, PLoS One 4:e7002; Gustafssonet al., 2004, Trends Biotechnol. 22:346-353; Wu et al., 2007, Nucl.Acids Res. 35:D76-79; Villalobos et al., 2006, BMC Bioinformatics 7:285;U.S. Patent Publication 2011/0111413; and U.S. Patent Publication2008/0292918).

The protein of the present invention may be made using chemical methods.For example, peptides can be synthesized by solid phase techniques(Roberge J Y et al (1995) Science 269: 202-204), cleaved from the resin,and purified by preparative high performance liquid chromatography.Automated synthesis may be achieved, for example, using the ABI 431 APeptide Synthesizer (Perkin Elmer) in accordance with the instructionsprovided by the manufacturer.

The peptide may alternatively be made by recombinant means or bycleavage from a longer polypeptide.

The Escherichia coli (E. coli) Rosetta2(DE3)/pLysS strains, or other E.coli strains, may be transformed with a vector to express the modifiedprotein and expressed in a flask or fermenter. The cells may be grown inthe autoinduction medium (1× Terrific Broth, 0.5% w/v glycerol, 0.05%w/v dextrose, 0.2% w/v alpha-lactose, 100 μg/ml ampicillin and 34 μg/mlchloramphenicol) and cells harvested anytime between 60 to 70 hoursafter inoculation.

The cell pellet obtained by fermentation or centrifugation may be lysedafter addition of suitable amount of resuspension buffer, by any methodnot limited to sonication, high pressure homogenization, bead mill,freeze thawing or by addition of any chemical.

According to the invention, the enzyme produced by fermentation may beenriched to obtain enzyme as usable for the transferase activity, by oneor combination of methods. Methods of protein purification are known inthe art. See, for example, Sambrook et al. (2001, Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York). The methodsmay involve binding of the protein to any matrix with diethylaminoethyl(DEAE) or other weak anion exchange functional group in the presence ofTris buffer or phosphate buffer and eluting with 0.4M sodium chloride(NaCl) solution. Alternatively, the methods may involve binding of theprotein to matrix with Ni²⁺ or other divalent metal cation affinityfunctional group in the presence of Tris buffer or phosphate buffer, orother buffer, and eluting with 0.5 M or other concentrations ofImidazole solution. An alternate method may involve addition of 0.3%(v/w) of polyethylenimine (PEI) to cell lysate and trapping the enzymein the formed pellet, or releasing the enzyme from the pellet in tosolution with the addition of 0.4M NaCl. In yet another alternate method0.1% (v/v) PEI may be added stirred for suitable time, preferably 1 hourand centrifuged. To the centrifugate 60% ammonium sulfate (w/w) may beadded, followed by stirring over a period of time and centrifuged. Thepellet obtained with the active protein may be used for furtherprocessing. The active protein thus obtained from any of the aboveprocesses may be used as solution or as lyophilized solid or as animmobilized solid or as a granule.

The composition of a protein may be confirmed by amino acid analysis orsequencing.

The variants of the proteins according to the present invention may be(i) one in which one or more of the amino acid residues are substitutedwith a conserved or non-conserved amino acid residue (preferably aconserved amino acid residue) and such substituted amino acid residuemay or may not be one encoded by the genetic code, (ii) one in whichthere are one or more modified amino acid residues, e.g., residues thatare modified by the attachment of substituent groups, (iii) one in whichthe peptide is an alternative splice variant of the peptide of thepresent invention, (iv) fragments of the peptides and/or (v) one inwhich the peptide is fused with another peptide, such as a leader orsecretory sequence or a sequence which is employed for purification (forexample, His-tag) or for detection (for example, Sv5 epitope tag). Thefragments include peptides generated via proteolytic cleavage (includingmulti-site proteolysis) of an original sequence. Variants may bepost-translationally or chemically modified. Such variants are deemed tobe within the scope of those skilled in the art from the teachingherein.

As known in the art the “similarity” between two peptides is determinedby comparing the amino acid sequence and its conserved amino acidsubstitutes of one polypeptide to a sequence of a second polypeptide.Variants are defined to include peptide sequences different from theoriginal sequence, preferably different from the original sequence inless than 40% of residues per segment of interest, more preferablydifferent from the original sequence in less than 25% of residues persegment of interest, more preferably different by less than 10% ofresidues per segment of interest, most preferably different from theoriginal protein sequence in just a few residues per segment of interestand at the same time sufficiently homologous to the original sequence topreserve the functionality of the original sequence and/or the abilityto stimulate the differentiation of a stem cell into the osteoblastlineage. The present invention includes amino acid sequences that are atleast 60%, 65%, 70%, 72%, 74%, 76%, 78%, 80%, 90%, or 95% similar oridentical to the original amino acid sequence. The degree of identitybetween two peptides is determined using computer algorithms and methodsthat are widely known for the persons skilled in the art. The identitybetween two amino acid sequences is preferably determined by using theBLASTP algorithm [BLAST Manual, Altschul, S., et al., NCBI NLM NIHBethesda, Md. 20894, Altschul, S., et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410(1990)].

The proteins of the invention can be post-translationally modified. Forexample, post-translational modifications that fall within the scope ofthe present invention include signal peptide cleavage, glycosylation,acetylation, isoprenylation, proteolysis, myristoylation, parylation,ubiquitylation, sumolation, phosphorylation, protein folding andproteolytic processing, etc. Some modifications or processing eventsrequire introduction of additional biological machinery. For example,processing events, such as signal peptide cleavage and coreglycosylation, are examined by adding canine microsomal membranes orXenopus egg extracts (U.S. Pat. No. 6,103,489) to a standard translationreaction.

The proteins of the invention may include unnatural amino acids formedby post-translational modification or by introducing unnatural aminoacids during translation. A variety of approaches are available forintroducing unnatural amino acids during protein translation.

A peptide or protein of the invention may be conjugated with othermolecules, such as proteins, to prepare fusion proteins. This may beaccomplished, for example, by the synthesis of N-terminal or C-terminalfusion proteins provided that the resulting fusion protein retains thefunctionality of the transferase.

A peptide or protein of the invention may be phosphorylated usingconventional methods such as the method described in Reedijk et al. (TheEMBO Journal 11(4):1365, 1992).

Nucleic Acids and Substrates

In one aspect, the invention provides nucleic acids which can bemodified to add a substrate on the 3′-terminal ends by Polθ. The nucleicacids as well as the substrate of the invention may be from any source.Nucleic acid in the context of the present invention includes but is notlimited to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) andpeptide nucleic acid (PNA). DNA and RNA are naturally occurring inorganisms, however, they may also exist outside living organisms or maybe added to organisms. The nucleic acid may be of any origin, e.g.,viral, bacterial, archae-bacterial, fungal, ribosomal, eukaryotic orprokaryotic. It may be nucleic acid from any biological sample and anyorganism, tissue, cell or sub-cellular compartment. It may be nucleicacid from any organism. The nucleic acid may be pre-treated beforequantification, e.g., by isolation, purification or modification. Alsoartificial or synthetic nucleic acid may be used. The length of thenucleic acids may vary. The nucleic acids may be modified, e.g. maycomprise one or more modified nucleobases or modified sugar moieties(e.g., comprising methoxy groups). The backbone of the nucleic acid maycomprise one or more peptide bonds as in peptide nucleic acid (PNA). Thenucleic acid may comprise a base analog such as non-purine ornon-pyrimidine analog or nucleotide analog. It may also compriseadditional attachments such as proteins, peptides and/or or amino acids.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid comprises single stranded DNA(ssDNA), double stranded DNA (dsDNA), partial ssDNA (pssDNA), RNA, andtelomeric ssDNA. In one embodiment, the substrate is transferred to the3′-end of the ssDNA, pssDNA, RNA, telomeric ssDNA or dsDNA.

In one embodiment, the substrate is dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dATP, dUTP, or anucleotide analog. In some embodiments, a nucleotide or nucleotideanalog can be labeled. Examples of possible labels include, but are notlimited to a radioisotope, an enzyme, an enzyme cofactor, an enzymesubstrate, an enzyme inhibitor, a dye, a hapten, a chemiluminescentmolecule, a fluorescent molecule, a phosphorescent molecule, anelectrochemiluminescent molecule, a chromophore, a magnetic particle, anaffinity label, a chromogenic agent, an azide group or other groups usedfor click chemistry, and other moieties known in the art.

In one embodiment, the substrate is a deoxyribonucleotide orribonucleotide modified at one or more positions within the sugarmoiety, tri-phosphate moiety or base moiety. In one embodiment, thedeoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide sugar moiety is modified. In oneembodiment, the deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide tri-phosphatemoiety is modified. In one embodiment the deoxyribonucleotide orribonucleotide base moiety is modified.

In certain embodiments, the substrate is cy3-dUTP, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP,Biotin-16AA-dUTP, Texas Red-5-dCTP, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP, 4-Thio-UTP,Biotin-16-AACTP, Ganciclovir Triphosphate,N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-adenosine-5′-triphosphate, or5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate. In some embodiments,the substrate is a 3′-O-blocked or 3′-unblocked reversible nucleotideterminator.

Methods

In one aspect, the invention provides methods of generating 3′-terminalend modified nucleic acid with a substrate. The method comprises:providing an A family member polymerase and a substrate; forming amixture comprising the A family member polymerase, the substrate ormixture of different substrates, the nucleic acid, and a reactionsolution wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least one divalentmetal; incubating the mixture; and isolating the 3′-terminal endmodified nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, the divalent metal is Manganese (Mn²⁺) or Cobalt(Co²⁺). In certain embodiments, the divalent metal is Mn²⁺. In someembodiments the concentration of the divalent metal in the reactionsolution is 1-50 mM, preferably 2-5 mM, and preferably 5 mM. In certainembodiments, a mixture of divalent metals including, but not limited to,Mn²⁺ and magnesium Mg²⁺ are used.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises a buffer. Incertain embodiments, the buffer is Tris HCl. In some embodiments the pHof the buffer is 6.5-8.8, preferably 7.0-8.2 and preferably 8.2.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises glycerol. Insome embodiments the concentration of glycerol in the reaction solutionis less than 20%, preferably 10%.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises a non-ionicdetergent. In certain embodiments, the non-ionic detergent is NP-40. Insome embodiments the concentration of NP-40 in the reaction solution isless than 1%, preferably 0.1%.

In one embodiment, the reaction solution further comprises bovine serumalbumin (BSA). In some embodiments the concentration of BSA in thereaction solution is 0.1 mg/ml.

In some embodiments, the step incubating the mixture comprisesincubating the mixture at a controlled temperature for a controlledlength of time. In certain embodiments, the incubation temperature is25° C.−42° C. In some embodiments, the temperature is 25° C., 37° C. orpreferably 42° C. In some embodiments, the incubation time is at least 2hours. In certain embodiments, the incubation time is 2 hours.

In some embodiments, the ratio of A-family polymerase to nucleic acid isdefined. In certain embodiments, the molar ratio of Polθ:nucleic acid isat least 1:1, preferably 5:1.

The modified DNA product that comprises the nucleic acid and substratecan be isolated or amplified using a primer that corresponds to a primerbinding site present in the ligated product (i.e., primer binding sitepresent in the donor molecule or the resulting hybrid product).

In particular embodiments of the invention the quantifying stepscomprise a method selected from the group consisting of gelelectrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, labelling reactions withsubsequent detection measures and quantitative real-time PCR orisothermal target amplification.

In preferred embodiments of the invention the substrate is labelled withone or more fluorescent dye(s) and/or quencher(s) and wherein thequantifying steps comprise detecting fluorescence signals in the sample.

Particularly, the fluorescently labelled primers or probes are labelledwith a dye selected from the group consisting of FAM, VIC, NED,Fluorescein, FITC, IRD-700/800, CY3, CY5, CY3.5, CY5.5, HEX, TET, TAMRA,JOE, ROX, BODIPY TMR, Oregon Green, Rhodamine Green, Rhodamine Red,Texas Red, Yakima Yellow, Alexa Fluor and PET or analogous dyes withsimilar excitation and emission properties.

In one embodiment, the primer or probe is a LightCycler probe (Roche) orthe hydrolysis probe is a TaqMan probe (Roche). In other embodiments theprimer or probe includes but is not limited to molecular beacon,Scorpion primer, Sunrise primer, LUX primer and Amplifluor primer.

The ability of Polθ to transfer various types of nucleotide analogs tothe 3′ terminus of nucleic acids demonstrates this enzyme can beutilized to synthesize nucleic acids of specific sequence and length.

Accordingly, in another aspect, the invention provides methods of denovo synthesis of nucleic acids. The method comprises: providing an Afamily member polymerase and a substrate; forming a mixture comprisingthe A family member polymerase, at least one nucleobase, and a reactionsolution wherein the reaction mixture comprises at least one divalentmetal; incubating the mixture; and isolating the synthesized nucleicacid.

In one embodiment, Polθ synthesizes nucleic acid by transferringnucleotides the 3′ terminus of a nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, the length of the synthesized nucleic acid iscontrolled by consecutive transfer of nucleobases via individual steps.

In one embodiment, the sequence of the synthesized nucleic acid iscontrolled by consecutive transfer of specific nucleobases, wherein theaddition of specific of nucleobases during ordered individual transfersteps dictates the synthesized nucleic sequence.

In one embodiment, the A family polymerase is Polθ. In some embodiments,the at least one nucleobase is selected from ATP, UTP, GTP, dATP, dTTP,dGTP, dCTP, and any combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the nucleotides are 3′-O-blocked or 3′-unblockedreversible terminators. In one embodiment, the reversible terminatorallows for multiple controlled consecutive single nucleotide transferevents in a DNA or RNA sequence dependent manner.

In some embodiments, the step incubating the mixture comprisesincubating the mixture at a controlled temperature for a controlledlength of time. In certain embodiments, the incubation temperature is25° C.−42° C. In some embodiments, the temperature is 25° C., 37° C. orpreferably 42° C. In some embodiments, the incubation time from about 30minutes to about 2 hours. In certain embodiments, the incubation time is2 hours.

Applications

The modified DNA or RNA composition of the present invention may be usedin a wide variety of protocols and technologies. For example, in certainembodiments, the modified DNA or RNA is used in the fields of molecularbiology, genomics, transcriptomics, epigenetics, nucleic acid synthesis,nucleic acid sequencing, and the like. That is, modified DNA or RNA maybe used in any technology that may require or benefit from the ligation,attachment or synthesis of modified DNA or RNA.

This method can be used in many technology platforms, including but notlimited to microarray, bead, and flow cytometry. The method will beuseful in numerous applications, such as genomic research, drug targetvalidation, drug discovery, diagnostic biomarker identification andtherapeutic assessment.

Kits

The present invention also relates to a kit for performing any of theabove described methods, wherein the kit comprises one or more of: (a)an A-family polymerase (b) a reaction solution and optionally, (c) asubstrate to modify a nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, the kit additionally comprises a Polθ. In anotherembodiment, the kit additionally comprises a polymerase. The kit mayadditionally also comprise a nucleotide mixture and (a) reactionbuffer(s). In certain embodiments, the kit includes a reaction buffercomprising 5 mM Mn²⁺, 20 mM Tris HCl pH 8.2, 10% glycerol, 0.01% NP-40and 0.1 mg/mL BSA.

In particular embodiments, the kit additionally comprises one or morepre-quantified calibrator nucleic acids, and a substrate for themodification of said calibrator nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, one or more of the components are premixed in thesame reaction container.

EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES

The invention is further described in detail by reference to thefollowing experimental examples. These examples are provided forpurposes of illustration only, and are not intended to be limitingunless so specified. Thus, the invention should in no way be construedas being limited to the following examples, but rather, should beconstrued to encompass any and all variations which become evident as aresult of the teaching provided herein.

Without further description, it is believed that one of ordinary skillin the art can, using the preceding description and the followingillustrative examples, make and utilize the compounds of the presentinvention and practice the claimed methods. The following workingexamples therefore, specifically point out the preferred embodiments ofthe present invention, and are not to be construed as limiting in anyway the remainder of the disclosure.

Example 1: DNA Polymerase θ Exhibits Robust Template-IndependentTerminal Transferase Activity in the Presence of Manganese

The data presented herein determines that Polθ definitively exhibitstemplate-independent terminal transferase activity in vitro. Aftertrying various conditions, Polθ was found to perform robust templateindependent terminal transferase activity in a manner that depends onthe presence of the divalent cation manganese (Mn²⁺), or cobalt (Co²⁺).In the presence of Mn²⁺, this activity is highly efficient, resulting inthe addition of hundreds of nucleotides to 3′ termini of ssDNA, pssDNA,dsDNA and RNA ends. Moreover, Polθ was found to be more effective intransferring ribonucleotides and modified nucleotide analogs containingbulky functional groups to ssDNA than commercially available terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT). Considering that Polθ dependentnon-templated nucleotide insertions occur regularly during alt-NHEJ invivo (Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654; Mateos-Gomez etal., 2015, Nature 518:254-7; Chan et al., 2010, PLoS Genet 6:e1001005;Koole et al., 2014, Nat Commun 5:3216), the template-independentterminal transferase activity discovered herein likely facilitatesinsertion mutations associated with alt-NHEJ in cells.

The materials and methods employed in these experiments are nowdescribed.

Protein Purification

Polθ (amino-acid residues 1792-2590) was purified as described (Kent etal., 2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:230-7).

Polθ Terminal Transferase Activity

The following procedure describes optimal conditions for Polθ terminaltransferase activity. 500 nM or 240 nM Polθ was incubated with 50 nM ofthe indicated radio-labeled DNA for 120 min at 42° C. in the presence of0.5 mM dNTPs in a 10 μl volume of the following buffer (20 mM TrisHCl pH8.2, 10% glycerol, 5 mM MnCl, 0.01% NP-40, 0.1 mg/ml BSA). Reactionswere terminated by the addition of 20 mM EDTA and 45% formamide and DNAwas resolved by electrophoresis in urea polyacrylamide gels thenvisualized by autoradiography. Polμ terminal transferase reactions wereperformed using the same conditions as Polθ.

TdT Terminal Transferase Activity

TdT terminal transferase reactions were performed using conditionsrecommended by New England Biolabs, however, 0.6 units/μl of TdT wasused in order to compare its activity with identical concentrations ofPolθ (240 nM); 0.6 units/μl is 3-fold more than that recommended bysupplier. Supplier's recommended buffer and temperature conditions usedfor TdT were as follows: 50 mM potassium acetate, 20 mM Tris acetate, 10mM magnesium acetate, pH 7.9, with 0.25 mM cobalt at 37° C. Incubationtimes were the same as Polθ.

The results of the experiments are now described.

Polθ Possesses Template-Independent Terminal Transferase Activity in thePresence of Mn²⁺ and Co²⁺

To determine whether Polθ definitively exhibits template-independentterminal transferase activity, the ability of Polθ to extend ahomopolymeric ssDNA substrate composed exclusively ofdeoxycytidine-monophosphates (poly-dC) was tested. In previous studies,it was found that Polθ is only able to extend homopolynucleotidesubstrates in the presence of the complementarydeoxy-ribonucleotide-triphosphate (dNTP) which demonstrates its abilityto exclusively perform template dependent DNA synthesis (Kent et al.,2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:230-7; Hogg et al., 2012, Nucleic Acid Res40:2611-22). Considering that divalent cations other than Mg²⁺ arepresent in cells, they may account for the discrepancy between theability of Polθ to perform non-templated DNA synthesis in vivo but notin vitro. Therefore tested various divalent cations were tested in areaction including Polθ, and a 5′ radio-labeled poly-dC ssDNA substrate29 nucleotides (nt) in length in the presence and absence of Mg²⁺ (FIG.1A). The results show that Mn²⁺ and Co²⁺ activate Polθ extension ofpoly-dC with deoxythymidine-triphosphate (dTTP) which demonstratestemplate-independent terminal transferase activity (i.e. non-templatedDNA synthesis). Since Mn²⁺ and Co²⁺ had a greater stimulatory effect inthe absence of Mg²⁺, they likely bind the same position as Mg²⁺ in theactive site (FIG. 1A).

Polθ template-independent terminal transferase activity in the presenceof Mn²⁺ was further investigated since it showed a greater stimulatoryeffect than Co²⁺. FIG. 1B shows that 2-5 mM Mn²⁺ results in the mostefficient extension of the poly-dC substrate in the presence of dTTP.The effects of different pH levels and buffer salt concentrations onPolθ template-independent terminal transferase activity were thenexamined. The results show that pH˜8.2 is most amenable to thisactivity, and that a relatively high concentration of buffer salt isinhibitory (FIG. 1C). Next, how salts, glycerol and non-ionic detergent(NP-40) affect the observed Polθ template-independent terminaltransferase activity was examined. Most of the salts had only a slightinhibitory effect at 50 mM concentration (FIG. 1D). Sodium sulfide,sodium phosphate and sodium citrate, however, significantly inhibitedPolθ terminal transferase activity at lower concentrations (FIG. 1D). Itwas found that relatively high concentrations of glycerol inhibited thisactivity, whereas low amounts of non-ionic detergent slightly stimulatedPolθ in this assay (FIG. 1E). Together, these data demonstrate that Polθpossesses template-independent terminal transferase activity in thepresence of Mn²⁺, and to a lesser extent with Co²⁺, and begin toidentify the optimal conditions under which the polymerase performs thisnovel function.

Optimization of Polθ Template-Independent Terminal Transferase Activity

Next, it was determined whether the concentration of Polθ relative tossDNA affects its template-independent terminal transferase activity.The results show that approximately a five-fold molar excess of thepolymerase above ssDNA is needed for maximal terminal transferaseactivity (FIG. 2A). It was further found that maximal transferaseactivity requires at least 2 hours of incubation at the optimaltemperature of 42° C. (FIG. 2B). Since these data were obtained on apoly-dC template in the presence of dTTP, they unequivocally demonstratePolθ as possessing robust template-independent terminal transferaseactivity, and likely identify the optimal conditions for this process.

Polθ Exhibits Preferential Terminal Transferase Activity on ssDNA andpssDNA

Next, the Polθ terminal transferase activity was examined in thepresence of Mn²⁺ on a variety of other substrates. For example, thisactivity was further tested on homopolymeric ssDNA composed of eitherdeoxythymidine-monophosphates (poly-dT) or deoxycytidine-monophosphates(poly-dC), and ssDNA containing variable sequences. Interestingly, thepolymerase preferentially extended these substrates by more than 100 ntin the presence of deoxyadenosine-triphosphate (dATP) regardless of thesequence context (FIGS. 3A and 3B). Considering that polymerasespreferentially incorporate a deoxyadenosine-monophosphate (dAMP)opposite an abasic site, which is regarded as the A-rule, these data areconsistent with Polθ template-independent activity. Polθ also extendsssDNA in the presence of dTTP, dCTP, and dGTP, however, the lengths ofextension products are shorter than with dATP (FIGS. 3A and 3B). In thecase of non-homopolymeric ssDNA, Polθ transfers ˜30-70 nt in thepresence of dTTP, dCTP, or dGTP, and transfers at least 100 nt when dATPis present (FIG. 3B). Interestingly, Polθ appears inefficient interminal transferase activity on doublestrand DNA (dsDNA)(FIG. 3D).Here, only a small fraction of dsDNA substrates are extended which is incontrast to the results observed with ssDNA. Further experiments,however, show that Polθ efficiently extends dsDNA when a “running start”reaction is performed (FIG. 3E). For example, on a traditionalprimer-template substrate, Polθ extends the primer for hundreds ofnucleotides past the 5′ end of the template strand (FIG. 3E).

Considering that Polθ is thought to act on DSBs partially resected byMre11 during MMEJ/alt-NHEJ3, its terminal transferase activity wasexamined on partial ssDNA (pssDNA) templates containing 3′ overhangs.Remarkably, the polymerase exhibited the most efficient terminaltransferase activity on pssDNA (FIG. 3F). For example, the polymeraseextended these substrates to longer lengths with most dNTPs (compareFIG. 3F with FIG. 3B). However, in the presence of dGTP Polθ terminaltransferase activity appears less efficient (FIG. 3F). Consistent withits role in promoting alt-NHEJ of telomeres in cells deficient intelomere protection proteins and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ)factors (Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015, Nature 518:254-7), Polθ alsoexhibits efficient terminal transferase activity on ssDNA modeled aftertelomeres which is known to contain stable G-quadruplex (G4) secondarystructures (FIG. 3G). Here again extension in the presence of dGTP wasthe least efficient. Considering that multiple guanosines are present inthe telomere repeat sequence, they likely suppress transfer ofdeoxyribonucloside-monophosphate (dGMP) by the polymerase. In contrast,all other nucleotides are efficiently transferred to the telomeric ssDNAsubstrate (FIG. 3G). Taken together, the results in FIG. 3 show thatPolθ exhibits the most effective terminal transferase activity onpssDNA, which is consistent with its role in MMEJ/alt-NHEJ, and that thepolymerase is also efficient in extending various ssDNA and dsDNAsubstrates.

Polθ, Polμ, and TdT Activities on ssDNA

Previous studies have suggested that X-family Polμ, which promotes NHEJ,might exhibit template-independent terminal transferase activity in thepresence of Mn²⁺ (Dominguez et al., 2000, EMBO J 19:1731-42). However, amore recent report stated that Polμ lacks template-independent terminaltransferase activity (MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY, April 2003, p.2309-2315). A direct compared was made between template-independentterminal transferase activities by Polθ and Polμ under identicalconditions. The results show that Polμ lacks any observabletemplate-independent terminal transferase activity on a poly-dCsubstrate (FIG. 4A, left). Polμ terminal transferase activity is alsovery poor on a non-homopolymeric ssDNA compared to Polθ which addshundreds of nucleotides under the same conditions (FIG. 4A, right).Hence, these data demonstrate that Polθ exhibits much more efficientterminal transferase activity than Polμ and provide an explanation ofwhy longer insertions are observed at alt-NHEJ junctions compared toNHEJ junctions in cells.

Importantly, terminal transferase activity is widely used to modifyssDNA ends for various types of applications including biotechnology,biomedical research, and synthetic biology. Currently, the only enzymedeveloped and marketed for these applications is terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) whose cellular function is to addnon-templated nucleotides to V, D and J exon regions during antibodygene maturation (Moeta and Berdis, 2010, Biochim Biophys Acta1804:1151-66). FIG. 4B compares the activities of Polθ and TdT.Remarkably, Polθ exhibits a similar ability to extend ssDNA as TdTassayed under conditions recommended by the supplier (New EnglandBiolabs; FIG. 4B). The results also show that Polθ and TdTpreferentially utilize dATP and dTTP, respectively, for this reaction(FIG. 4B). Many biotechnology and biomedical research applicationsrequire ssDNA substrates modified with fluorophores or other chemicalgroups, such as those that enable DNA attachment to solid surfaces orother types of molecules (see FIG. 5). Therefore the ability of Polθ totransfer deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides conjugated withdifferent functional groups to the 3′ terminus of ssDNA was examined(see FIG. 5). Using the supplier's recommended buffer and temperatureconditions for TdT, and identical concentrations of Polθ under thepresently described optimal conditions for the polymerase, it was foundthat Polθ is significantly more effective in transferringribonucleotides to ssDNA compared to TdT (FIG. 4C). Thus, althoughprevious studies have shown that Polθ strongly discriminates againstribonucleotides (Hogg et al., 2012, Nucleic Acid Res 40:2611-22), thisfidelity mechanism appears to be compromised during the presentlydescribed terminal transferase reaction. Again using the sameconditions, it was unexpectedly found that Polθ more effectivelytransfers most (8 out of 10) modified deoxy-ribonucleotides andribonucleotides to ssDNA than TdT (FIG. 4D). For example, in many casesPolθ transfers more modified nucleotides to ssDNA compared to TdTresulting in longer extension products (FIG. 4D, FIG. 5). In othercases, TdT completely fails to transfer certain modified nucleotidesthat Polθ efficiently adds to ssDNA (FIG. 4D). For example, Polθefficiently transfers Texas Red dCTP, N6-dATP, and ganciclovir, whereasan identical concentration of TdT is unable to incorporate thesemodified nucleotides (FIG. 4D; FIG. 5). In general, many of thesemodified deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides include long linkersattached to functional groups including biotin, digoxigenin, Cy3, andTexas Red (FIG. 5). Thus, these results show that Polθ can efficientlytransfer ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides containing largemodifications on their base moieties (i.e. uracil, cytosine) and sugarmodifications (i.e. ganciclovir mono-phosphate). Taken together, thesedata show that Polθ is more effective in transferring canonicalribonucleotides and modified ribonucleotide and deoxyribonucleotideanalogs containing bulky groups compared to commercially available TdT.Considering that Polθ exhibits translesion synthesis activity, theseresults may be attributed to its natural ability to accommodate bulkynucleotides in its active site.

Since RNA is increasingly being used for many types of applications inbiotechnology and biomedical research, the ability of Polθ to modify the3′ terminus of RNA was further examined. It was observed that Polθ cantransfer deoxyribonucleotides to the 3′ terminus of RNA. Moreover, Polθis capable of transferring modified nucleotides to RNA (FIG. 6B; FIG.5). Hence, these results demonstrate that Polθ terminal transferaseactivity is not limited to DNA.

Polθ for Modifying Nucleic Acid Substrates

Polθ is an unusual A-family polymerase that is highly error-prone andpromiscuous due to the presence of three insertion motifs in itsotherwise conserved polymerase domain (Kent et al., 2015, Nat Struct MolBiol 22:230-7; Hogg et al., 2011, J Mol Biol 405:642-52; Hogg et al.,2012, Nucleic Acid Res 40:2611-22; Arana et al., 2008, Nucleic Acid Res36:3847-56; Zahn et al., 2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:304-11). Recentstudies have discovered that this enzyme is essential for MMEJ/alt-NHEJin mammalian cells, which promotes chromosome rearrangements andresistance to DNA damaging agents, including those used for chemotherapy(Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654; Mateos-Gomez et al.,2015, Nature 518:254-7). Importantly, these previous cellular studieshave shown the presence of non-templated (random) nucleotide insertionsat DNA repair junctions generated by alt-NHEJ which were dependent onPolθ (Yousefzadeh et al., 2014, PLoS Genet 10:e1004654). Hence, thesereports have indicated that Polθ generates random nucleotide insertionsduring alt-NHEJ, presumably via a template-independent terminaltransferase activity. Yet, until now Polθ template-independent terminaltransferase activity has not been demonstrated in vitro.

The data presented herein demonstrate that Polθ exhibits robusttemplate-independent terminal transferase activity that is activated bythe metal Mn²⁺. Considering that differential binding of divalentcations within the active site of Polθ slightly alters its localconformation (Zahn et al., 2015, Nat Struct Mol Biol 22:304-11), Mn²⁺binding likely facilitates an active site conformation more favorablefor non-templated DNA synthesis. Since Polθ non-templated nucleotideinsertions are associated with alt-NHEJ in cells, these findingsindicate that Mn²⁺ is a co-factor of Polθ in vivo. For example, althoughMn²⁺ is present at significantly lower concentrations than Mg²⁺ in cells(Martin et al., 2013, Nucleic Acid Res 41:2428-36), the data presentedherein show that only a small amount of Mn²⁺ is needed to stimulate Polθtemplate-independent terminal transferase activity when Mg²⁺ is abundant(FIG. 1A). Thus, the relatively low cellular concentration of Mn (<1 mM)is likely to activate Polθ template-independent terminal transferaseactivity. Lastly, given that Polθ is more effective in transferringribonucleotides and many modified nucleotide analogs containing largefunctional groups to the 3′ terminus of ssDNA than identicalconcentrations of commercially available TdT assayed under thesupplier's recommended optimal conditions, it is anticipated that Polθwill be more useful for modifying DNA as well as RNA substrates forbiotechnology, biomedical research and synthetic biology applications.Moreover, since Polθ does not require toxic reaction components likeTdT, such as Co²⁺ salts or salts of cadodylic acid, Polθ terminaltransferase assays are a safer option for research and biotechnologyapplications.

Example 2: Peptide and Nucleic Acid Sequences

Presented herein are the peptide sequences and the calculated nucleicacid sequences for the peptides. The amino acid sequences werecalculated using EMBOSS Backtranambig—a program that reads a proteinsequence and writes the nucleic acid sequence it could have come from.It does this by using nucleotide ambiguity codes that represent allpossible codons for each amino acid (Table 1).

Polθ₁₇₉₂₋₂₅₉₀ Amino acid sequence: (SEQ ID NO: 1)GFKDNSPISDTSFSLQLSQDGLQLTPASSSSESLSIIDVASDQNLFQTFIKEWRCKKRFSISLACEKIRSLTSSKTATIGSRFKQASSPQEIPIRDDGFPIKGCDDTLVVGLAVCWGGRDAYYFSLQKEQKHSEISASLVPPSLDPSLTLKDRMWYLQSCLRKESDKECSVVIYDFIQSYKILLLSCGISLEQSYEDPKVACWLLDPDSQEPTLHSIVTSFLPHELPLLEGMETSQGIQSLGLNAGSEHSGRYRASVESILIFNSMNQLNSLLQKENLQDVFRKVEMPSQYCLALLELNGIGESTAECESQKHIMQAKLDAIETQAYQLAGHSESETSSDDIAEVLFLELKLPPNREMKNQGSKKTLGSTRRGIDNGRKLRLGRQFSTSKDVLNKLKALHPLPGLILEWRRITNAITKVVFPLQREKCLNPFLGMERIYPVSQSHTATGRITFTEPNIQNVPRDFEIKMPTLVGESPPSQAVGKGLLPMGRGKYKKGFSVNPRCQAQMEERAADRGMPFSISMRHAFVPFPGGSILAADYSQLELRILAHLSHDRRLIQVLNTGADVERSIAAEWKMIEPESVGDDLRQQAKQICYGIIYGMGAKSLGEQMGIKENDAACYIDSFKSRYTGINQFMTETVKNCKRDGEVQTILGRRRYLPGIKDNNPYRKAHAERQAINTIVQGSAADIVKIATVNIQKQLETFHSTFKSHGHREGMLQSDQTGLSRKRKLQGMFCPIRGGFFILQLHDELLYEVAEEDVVQVAQIVKNEMESAVKLSVKLKVKVKIGASWGELKDFDV. Nucleic acid sequence: (SEQ ID NO: 2)GGNTTYAARGAYAAYWSNCCNATHWSNGAYACNWSNTTYWSNYTNCARYTNWSNCARGAYGGNYTNCARYTNACNCCNGCNWSNWSNWSNWSNGARWSNYTNWSNATHATHGAYGTNGCNWSNGAYCARAAYYTNTTYCARACNTTYATHAARGARTGGMGNTGYAARAARMGNTTYWSNATHWSNYTNGCNTGYGARAARATHMGNWSNYTNACNWSNWSNAARACNGCNACNATHGGNWSNMGNTTYAARCARGCNWSNWSNCCNCARGARATHCCNATHMGNGAYGAYGGNTTYCCNATHAARGGNTGYGAYGAYACNYTNGTNGTNGGNYTNGCNGTNTGYTGGGGNGGNMGNGAYGCNTAYTAYTTYWSNYTNCARAARGARCARAARCAYWSNGARATHWSNGCNWSNYTNGTNCCNCCNWSNYTNGAYCCNWSNYTNACNYTNAARGAYMGNATGTGGTAYYTNCARWSNTGYYTNMGNAARGARWSNGAYAARGARTGYWSNGTNGTNATHTAYGAYTTYATHCARWSNTAYAARATHYTNYTNYTNWSNTGYGGNATHWSNYTNGARCARWSNTAYGARGAYCCNAARGTNGCNTGYTGGYTNYTNGAYCCNGAYWSNCARGARCCNACNYTNCAYWSNATHGTNACNWSNTTYYTNCCNCAYGARYTNCCNYTNYTNGARGGNATGGARACNWSNCARGGNATHCARWSNYTNGGNYTNAAYGCNGGNWSNGARCAYWSNGGNMGNTAYMGNGCNWSNGTNGARWSNATHYTNATHTTYAAYWSNATGAAYCARYTNAAYWSNYTNYTNCARAARGARAAYYTNCARGAYGTNTTYMGNAARGTNGARATGCCNWSNCARTAYTGYYTNGCNYTNYTNGARYTNAAYGGNATHGGNTTYWSNACNGCNGARTGYGARWSNCARAARCAYATHATGCARGCNAARYTNGAYGCNATHGARACNCARGCNTAYCARYTNGCNGGNCAYWSNTTYWSNTTYACNWSNWSNGAYGAYATHGCNGARGTNYTNTTYYTNGARYTNAARYTNCCNCCNAAYMGNGARATGAARAAYCARGGNWSNAARAARACNYTNGGNWSNACNMGNMGNGGNATHGAYAAYGGNMGNAARYTNMGNYTNGGNMGNCARTTYWSNACNWSNAARGAYGTNYTNAAYAARYTNAARGCNYTNCAYCCNYTNCCNGGNYTNATHYTNGARTGGMGNMGNATHACNAAYGCNATHACNAARGTNGTNTTYCCNYTNCARMGNGARAARTGYYTNAAYCCNTTYYTNGGNATGGARMGNATHTAYCCNGTNWSNCARWSNCAYACNGCNACNGGNMGNATHACNTTYACNGARCCNAAYATHCARAAYGTNCCNMGNGAYTTYGARATHAARATGCCNACNYTNGTNGGNGARWSNCCNCCNWSNCARGCNGTNGGNAARGGNYTNYTNCCNATGGGNMGNGGNAARTAYAARAARGGNTTYWSNGTNAAYCCNMGNTGYCARGCNCARATGGARGARMGNGCNGCNGAYMGNGGNATGCCNTTYWSNATHWSNATGMGNCAYGCNTTYGTNCCNTTYCCNGGNGGNWSNATHYTNGCNGCNGAYTAYWSNCARYTNGARYTNMGNATHYTNGCNCAYYTNWSNCAYGAYMGNMGNYTNATHCARGTNYTNAAYACNGGNGCNGAYGTNTTYMGNWSNATHGCNGCNGARTGGAARATGATHGARCCNGARWSNGTNGGNGAYGAYYTNMGNCARCARGCNAARCARATHTGYTAYGGNATHATHTAYGGNATGGGNGCNAARWSNYTNGGNGARCARATGGGNATHAARGARAAYGAYGCNGCNTGYTAYATHGAYWSNTTYAARWSNMGNTAYACNGGNATHAAYCARTTYATGACNGARACNGTNAARAAYTGYAARMGNGAYGGNTTYGTNCARACNATHYTNGGNMGNMGNMGNTAYYTNCCNGGNATHAARGAYAAYAAYCCNTAYMGNAARGCNCAYGCNGARMGNCARGCNATHAAYACNATHGTNCARGGNWSNGCNGCNGAYATHGTNAARATHGCNACNGTNAAYATHCARAARCARYTNGARACNTTYCAYWSNACNTTYAARWSNCAYGGNCAYMGNGARGGNATGYTNCARWSNGAYCARACNGGNYTNWSNMGNAARMGNAARYTNCARGGNATGTTYTGYCCNATHMGNGGNGGNTTYTTYATHYTNCARYTNCAYGAYGARYTNYTNTAYGARGTNGCNGARGARGAYGTNGTNCARGTNGCNCARATHGTNAARAAYGARATGGARWSNGCNGTNAARYTNWSNGTNAARYTNAARGTNAARGTNAARATHGGNGCNWSNTGGGGNGARYTNAARGAYTTYGAYGTN.

TABLE 1 Nucleic acid code to generate computed sequences ofPolθ₁₇₉₂₋₂₅₉₀ Code Meaning Etymology Complement Opposite A A Adenosine TB T/U T or U Thymidine/Uridine A V G G Guanine C H C C Cytidine G D K Gor T Keto M M M A or C Amino K K R A or G Purine Y Y Y C or T PyrimidineR R S C or G Strong S W W A or T Weak W S B C or G or T not A (B comes VA after A) V A or C or G not T/U (V comes B T/U after U) H A or C or Tnot G (H comes D G after G) D A or G or T not C (D comes H C after C)X/N G or A or T or C any N • • not G or A or T • N or C — gap ofindeterminate length

Example 3: Polymerase θ is a Robust Terminal Transferase that OscillatesBetween Three Different Mechanisms During End-Joining

This study, sought to elucidate how Polθ generates insertion mutationsduring alt-EJ which contribute to genome instability. Described hereinis that manganese (Mn²⁺) activates Polθ template-independent terminaltransferase activity. Additionally, it is described that Polθ generatesrandom combinations of templated and nontemplated insertion mutationsduring alt-EJ by oscillating between three different modes of terminaltransferase activity: non-templated extension, templated extension incis, and templated extension in trans. Finally, Polθ terminaltransferase activity is characterized and it is surprisingly found thatthis activity is more proficient than terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase (TdT). Together, these data identify an unprecedentedswitching mechanism employed by Polθ to generate genetic diversityduring alt-EJ and characterize Polθ as among the most proficientterminal transferases in nature.

The materials and methods employed in these experiments are nowdescribed.

Polθ Terminal Transferase Activity

500 nM Polθ was incubated with 50 nM of the indicated 5′ 32P-labeled DNAfor 120 min at 42° C. (or other indicated time intervals and temp) inthe presence of 0.5 mM of indicated dNTPs in a 10 μl volume of buffer A(20 mM TrisHCl pH 8.2, 10% glycerol, 0.01% NP-40, 0.1 mg/ml BSA) withindicated divalent cations; optimal Polθ terminal transferase activitywas performed with 5 mM MnCl2. Reactions were terminated by the additionof 20 mM EDTA and 45% formamide and DNA was resolved by electrophoresisin urea polyacrylamide gels then visualized by autoradiography. Polμterminal transferase reactions were performed using the same conditionsas Polθ. 50 nM Polθ was used in experiments employing ssDNA traps.150-fold excess of unlabled ssDNA trap was added to reactions atindicated time points where indicated. Polθ terminal transferaseactivity in solid-phase. 50 nM RP347B was immobilized to magneticstreptavidin beads (Dynabeads® M-270, Invitrogen) in buffer Asupplemented with 100 mM NaCl. Excess unbound DNA was then removed bywashing beads 3× with buffer A with 100 mM NaCl. Next, the bead-DNAmixture was washed and resuspended in buffer A containing 10 mM MgCl₂and 1 mM MnCl. 500 nM Polθ was then added for 10 min to allow for ssDNAbinding. Excess unbound Polθ was then removed by washing the beads 4×with 200 μl buffer A supplemented with 10 mM MgCl₂ and 1 mM MnCl₂. Beadswere resuspended in buffer A supplemented with 10 mM MgCl₂ and 1 mMMnCl₂, then 0.5 mM dNTPs were added at 42° C. After 15 s, either dH₂O or7.5 μM RP427 was added and the reaction was terminated after 120 min byaddition of EDTA. The beads were thoroughly washed to remove excessssDNA trap. The beads were then resuspended in dH₂O followed by boilingfor 1-2 min. The supernatant was collected, then another cycle ofboiling and supernatant collection was performed. The DNA from thesupernatant was purified using Zymo DNA Clean and Concentrator™-5 kit.Purified DNA was then ligated to RP430P overnight at room temp using T4RNA ligase (New Englan Biolabs). RNA ligase was denatured at 65° C.,then the DNA was purified using Zymo DNA Clean and Concentrator™-5 kit.The ligated DNA was then amplified via PCR using GoTaq® Green (Promega)and primers RP347 and RP431. PCR products were purified using QIAquickPCR purification kit (Qiagen). Pure PCR products were then cloned intoE. coli plasmid vectors using TOPO® TA cloning (Invitrogen). Individualplasmids containing PCR products were amplified in E. coli, isolated,and then sequenced.

Polθ Mediated Alt-EJ In Vitro.

Equimolar concentrations (100 nM) of pssDNA substrates RP429/RP430-P andRP434-P/RP408 were mixed with 50 nM Polθ and 88.5 nM Lig3 in buffer Asupplemented with 1 mM MnCl2, 10 mM MgCl₂ and 1 mM ATP. Next, 10 μMdNTPs were added for 120 min at 37° C. in a total volume of 100 μl.Reactions were terminated by incubation at 80° C. for 20 min. (Negativecontrol reactions included: omission of Lig3, and; omission of Polθ andLig3). DNA was purified using QIAquick® Nucleotide Removal kit (QIAGEN)then amplified using PCR Master Mix (Promega) and end-joining specificprimers RP431 and RP435. PCR products were purified using GeneJET PCRPurification Kit (ThermoScientific) then cloned into the pCR™2.1-TOPO™vector (Invitrogen). DNA was transformed into E. coli DH5α cells, andindividual plasmids from single colonies were purified and sequenced.Polθ mediated alt-EJ in FIG. 3—figure supplement 3 was performed asdescribed above, however, 1 mM MgCl₂, 50 μM MnCl₂ and 100 μM dNTPs wereused. Where indicated, 150-fold excess (15 μM) of ssDNA trap (RP347) wasadded to the reaction at the indicated time point. Polθ mediated alt-EJin cells. Polθ mediated alt-EJ involving chromosomal translocation wasperformed as previously described (Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015). Briefly,mouse Embryonic Stem (ES) cells were transfected with 3 μg of Cas9-gRNA(Rosa26; H3f3b)(Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015). After transfection, 5×104cells were seeded per well in a 96-well plate, and lysed 3 days later in40 μl lysis buffer (10 mM Tris pH 8.0, 0.45% Nonidet P-40, 0.45% Tween20). The lysate was incubated with 200 μg/ml of Proteinase K for 2 hoursat 55° C. Translocation detection was performed using nested PCR. Theprimers used in the first PCR reaction includeTr6-11-Fwd:5′-GCGGGAGAAATGGATATGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3); Tr6-11-Rev:5′-TTGACGCCTTCCTTCTTCTG-3′(SEQ ID NO: 4), and Tr11-6-Fwd:5′-AACCTTTGAAAAAGCCCACA-3′(SEQ ID NO: 5) andTr11-6-Rev:5′-GCACGTTTCCGACTTGAGTT-3′(SEQ ID NO: 6), for Der(6) and Der(11) respectively. For the second round of PCR amplification, thefollowing primers were used: Tr6-11NFwd: 5′-GGCGGATCACAAGCAATAAT-3′(SEQID NO: 7); Tr6-11NRev: 5′-CTGCCATTCCAGAGATTGGT-3′(SEQ ID NO: 8) andTr11-6NFwd:5′-AGCCACAGTGCTCACATCAC-3′(SEQ ID NO: 9) andTr11-6NRev:5′TCCCAAAGTCGCTCTGAGTT-3′(SEQ ID NO: 10). Amplified productscorresponding to translocation events were subject to Sanger sequencingto determine the junction sequences.

TdT Terminal Transferase Activity

TdT terminal transferase reactions were performed on indicated 5′ 32Plabeled DNA using conditions recommended by New England Biolabs: 50 mMpotassium acetate, 20 mM Tris acetate, 10 mM magnesium acetate, pH 7.9,with 0.25 mM cobalt and incubated at 37° C. Incubation times and DNAconcentrations were identical as experiments with Polθ. TdT was eitherused at concentrations recommended by New England Biolabs (0.2 units/μl)or equimolar concentrations as Polθ as indicated in text. DNA productswere resolved as indicated above.

Polθ Extension of RP347 and Preparation of DNA for Sequencing.

Polθ (500 nM) was incubated with 50 nM RP347 ssDNA along with 0.5 mMdNTPs in 100 μl of buffer A supplemented with either 5 mM MnCl2 or 1 mMMnCl2 and 10 mM MgCl₂ for 120 min at 42° C. Reactions were terminated bythe addition of 25 μl of 5× non-denaturing stop buffer (0.5 M Tris-HCl,pH 7.5, 10 mg/ml proteinase K, 80 mM EDTA, and 1.5% SDS). This wasfollowed by phenol-chlorophorm extraction, ethanol precipitation, thenligation to 5′-phosphorylated RP359-P ssDNA using T4 RNA ligase (NEB).DNA products were ethanol precipitated then dissolved in water. Next,PCR amplification of ligation products was performed using primers RP347and RP359C and Taq Master Mix (Promega). PCR products were purifiedusing GeneJET PCR Purification Kit (ThermoScientific) then cloned intothe pCR™2.1-TOPO™ vector (Invitrogen). DNA was transformed into E. coliDH5α cells, and individual plasmids from single colonies were purifiedand sequenced.

Polθ-Mg²⁺ Primer-Template Extension

Polθ-Mg²⁺ primer-extension was performed as described (Kent, 2015) witheither 10 mM MgCl₂ or 5 mM MnCl₂ and indicated dNTPs and time intervals.Primer-extension in solidphase was performed as follows. A 2:1 ratio oftemplate (RP409) to biotinylated primer (RP25B) was annealed thenimmobilized to magnetic streptavidin beads (Dynabeads® M-270,Invitrogen) pre-washed with buffer A supplemented with 100 mM NaCl.Excess unbound DNA was then removed by washing beads 3× with 200 μl ofbuffer A with 100 mM NaCl. Next, the bead-DNA mixture was washed andresuspended in buffer A containing 5 mM MnCl and 0.5 mM dNTPs. 500 μMPolθ was then added for 120 min at 42° C. The reaction was thenterminated by the addition of 20 mM EDTA followed by boiling for 1-2min. The supernatant was collected, then another cycle of boiling andsupernatant collection was performed. The DNA from the supernatant waspurified using Zymo DNA Clean and Concentrator™-5 kit. Purified DNA wasthen ligated to RP430P overnight at room temp using T4 RNA ligase (NewEnglan Biolabs). RNA ligase was denatured at 65° C., then the DNA waspurified using Zymo DNA Clean and Concentrator™-5 kit. The ligated DNAwas then amplified via PCR using GoTaq® Green (Promega) and primers RP25and RP431. PCR products were purified using QIAquick PCR purificationkit (Qiagen). Pure PCR products were then cloned into E. coli plasmidvectors using TOPO® TA cloning (Invitrogen). Individual plasmidscontaining PCR products were amplified in E. coli, isolated, thensequenced. Where indicated primer-extension was performed with either a1:1 ratio of PolθWT or PolθRR to primer-template (50 nM), or a 1:25ratio of PolθWT or PolθRR to primer-template (50 nM). A 150-fold excessof ssDNA trap (7.5 μM RP316) was added 1 min after initiation ofprimer-extension where indicated.

De Novo Nucleic Acid Synthesis.

500 nM Polθ was incubated with the indicated nucleotides at thefollowing concentrations (500 nM ATP,UTP,GTP,dATP,dTTP,dGTP; 97 nM dCTP,[α-32P]-6000 Ci/mmol 20mCi/ml(Perkin Elmer)) for the indicated timeintervals at 42° C. in buffer A supplemented with 5 mM MnCl. Nucleicacid products were resolved in denaturing polyacrylamide gels andvisualized by autoradiography. PolθWT and mutant proteins PolθL2 andPolθRR were purified as described (Kent, 2015). Site-directedmutagenesis was performed using QuickChange II Site-Directed MutagenesisKit (Agilent Technologies). TdT was purchased from New England Biolabs(NEB). Polμ and Lig3 were purchased from Enzymax. DNA. pssDNA, dsDNA andprimer-templates were assembled by mixing equimolar concentrations ofssDNA substrates together in deionized water, then heating to 95-100° C.followed by slow cooling to room temp. ssDNA was 5′ 32P-labeled using32P-γ-ATP (Perkin Elmer) and T4 polynucleotide kinase (NEB). DNA(Integrated DNA technologies (IDT)) and RNA (Dharmacon) oligonucleotides(5′-3′).

RP25: (SEQ ID NO: 11) CACAGATTCTGGCAGGCTGCAGATCGC RP25B: (SEQ ID NO: 12)Biotin-CACAGATTCTGGCAGGCTGCAGATCGC RP347: (SEQ ID NO: 13)CACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGAGATAC RP348: (SEQ ID NO: 14)CACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGAGCCGG RP63: (SEQ ID NO: 15)CGAAATAGACAGATCGCTGAGGATAGGTGCCTCACTG RP63C: (SEQ ID NO: 16)CAGTGAGGCACCTATCCTCAGCGATCTGTCTATTTCG RP271: (SEQ ID NO: 17)CATCTTTTACTTCCACCAGCGTTTCTGGG RP271C: (SEQ ID NO: 18)CCCAGAAACGCTGGTGGAAGTAAAAGATG RP359: (SEQ ID NO: 19)GTGGATGAATTACACATGCTGGGAGACTC RP359C: (SEQ ID NO: 20)GAGTCTCCCAGCATGTGTAATTCATCCAC RP266: (SEQ ID NO: 27)TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTGCGATCTGCAGCCTGCCAGAATCTGTG RP331: (SEQ ID NO: 21)ACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAG RP340: (SEQ ID NO: 28)CACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGAGATCG RNA-2: (SEQ ID NO: 29) AUCGAGAGG RP343-P:(SEQ ID NO: 30) /5Phos/CTAAGCTCACAGTG RP429: (SEQ ID NO: 22)GGAGGTTAGGCACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGAGATAC RP430-P: (SEQ ID NO: 23)/5Phos/CTAAGCTCACAGTGCCTAACCTCC RP434-P: (SEQ ID NO: 24)/5Phos/GAGCACGTCCAGGCGATCTGCAGCCTG RP408: (SEQ ID NO: 25)GAGCACGTCCAGGCGATCTGCAGCCTGCCAGAATCTGTG RP427: (SEQ ID NO: 31)CGCCACCTCTGACTTGAGCG RP409: (SEQ ID NO: 32)GAGCACGTCCACGCGATCTGCAGCCTGCCAGAATCTGTG RP347B: (SEQ ID NO: 26)Biotin-CACTGTGAGCTTAGGGTTAGAGATAC

-   -   pssDNA substrates: RP347/RP343-P, RP348/RP343-P, RP340/RP343-P,        RP429/RP430-P, RP434-P/RP408.    -   Telomeric ssDNA, RP331. Primer-templates, RP25/RP266, RP25/409,        RP25B/409.

Nucleotide Analogs

1, cy3-dUTP (Santa Cruz Biotech.); 2, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP (Sigma); 3,Biotin-16AAdUTP (TriLink Biotech.); 4, Texas Red-5-dCTP (PerkinElmer);5, N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-ATP (Jena Bioscience); 6, Cyanine 3-AA-UTP (TriLinkBiotech.); 7, 4-Thio-UTP (TriLink Biotech.); 8, Biotin-16-AACTP (TriLinkBiotech.); 9, Ganciclovir Triphosphate (TriLink Biotech.); 10,5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate (TriLink Biotech.).

The results of the experiments are now described.

Polθ Template-Independent Activity Requires Manganese

A current paradox in the understanding of alt-EJ is that Polθ promotesnon-templated (random) nucleotide insertions at DNA repair junctions invivo, but lacks template-independent terminal transferase activity invitro. For example, similar to previous studies (Hogg et al., 2012;Kent, 2015), Polθ fails to extend a homopolymeric ssDNA containingdeoxycytidine-monophosphates (poly-dC) in the absence of thecomplementary deoxyguanosine-triphosphate (dGTP) under standard bufferconditions with magnesium (Mg²⁺) (FIG. 7D). This shows that efficientssDNA extension by Polθ requires the complementary nucleotide, whichdemonstrates that the template bases facilitate the nucleotidyltransferase reactions by pairing with the incoming nucleotide. Recentstudies suggest that this template-dependent activity is due to‘snap-back’ replication whereby the polymerase uses the template in cis(Kent, 2015). A separate biochemical study also indicated that Polθlacks template-independent activity (Yousefzadeh et al., 2014). Thus, itremains unclear how Polθ facilitates random nucleotide insertions duringalt-EJ which contribute to genome instability (FIG. 7B).

Considering that divalent cations other than Mg²⁺ are present in cells,they may account for the discrepancy between the ability of Polθ toperform template-independent DNA synthesis in vivo but not in vitro.Therefore various divalent cations were tested in a reaction includingPolθ, poly-dC ssDNA and deoxythymidinetriphosphate (dTTP), in thepresence and absence of Mg²⁺ (FIG. 7E). The results showed that Mn²⁺,and to a lesser extent Co²⁺, activates Polθ extension of poly-dC withdTTP (FIG. 7E). For example, in the absence of Mn²⁺ in FIG. 7D, Polθextended only a small fraction of substrates with dTTP (lane 4). Incontrast, the addition of Mn²⁺ under the same reaction conditionspromoted extension of the same substrate by Polθ even when Mg²⁺ wasabundant (FIG. 7E). Since thymidine cannot base pair with cytidine,these data demonstrate that Mn²⁺ activates Polθ template-independentterminal transferase activity (i.e. non-templated DNA synthesis). SincePolθ DNA synthesis activity is fully supported by Mn²⁺ (FIG. 7E, lane25), this indicates that Mn²⁺ binds to the same positions as Mg²⁺ withinthe polymerase active site which is necessary for the nucleotidyltransferase reaction. Consistent with this, recent structural studiesshow that other metals such as calcium can substitute for Mg²⁺ in thepolymerase active site (Zahn et al., 2015). Furthermore, several linesof evidence show that Mn²⁺ can act as a co-factor for DNA polymerasesand RNA polymerases and reduces the fidelity of these enzymes (Andradeet al., 2009; Dominguez et al., 2000; Walmacq et al., 2009). Hence, thedata show that Mn²⁺ acts as a co-factor for Polθ which promotestemplate-independent activity and likely reduces the fidelity of thepolymerase. Importantly, this template-independent activity was alsostimulated 3-8 fold by relatively low concentrations of Mn²⁺ (0.2 mM)and Mg²⁺ (1-2 mM) which are found in cells (FIG. 8) (MacDermott, 1990;Schmitz et al., 2003; Visser et al., 2014). Biochemical studies havealso shown that Mn²⁺ is a necessary co-factor for the yeastMre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) nuclease complex and its mammalian counterpart,MRN, which is essential for generating 3′ overhangs during alt-EJ,presumably by acting with CtIP (Lee-Theilen et al., 2011; Trujillo etal., 1998; Zhang and Jasin, 2011). Thus, these and other lines ofevidence strongly indicate a physiological role for Mn²⁺ as a co-factorfor DNA repair enzymes (Andrade et al., 2009; Cannavo and Cejka, 2014;Dominguez et al., 2000; Trujillo et al., 1998).

Optimal conditions were identified for Polθ-Mn²⁺ template-independentterminal transferase activity in FIG. 9. Using these optimal conditionsat different temperatures, it was found that Polθ-Mn²⁺ exhibits robusttemplate-independent terminal transferase activity (FIG. 7F). Thissuggests Mn²⁺ promotes the ability of Polθ to generate random nucleotideinsertions during alt-EJ in cells. It was further found that Mn²⁺greatly stimulates Polθ terminal transferase activity onnon-homopolymeric ssDNA substrates (FIG. 7G, left and right). Incontrast, in the presence of Mg²⁺ Polθ became mostly arrested aftertransferring ˜10-20 nucleotides (nt), but also generated some largerdiscrete products (FIG. 7G, left and right). These data along with thosepresented in FIG. 7D indicate that Mg²⁺ promotes template-dependentactivity which directs the polymerase to repeatedly synthesize a fewdiscrete products as observed for both substrates (FIG. 7G, left andright). Consistent with this, Polθ-Mg²⁺ consistently generated similarDNA sequences from the RP347 ssDNA template, which is likely due tosnap-back replication (FIG. 10). Mn²⁺ on the other hand facilitatestemplate-independent activity which enables Polθ to generate randomproducts of different lengths as indicated by a smear (FIG. 7G, left andright).

Polθ Oscillates Between Three Different Modes of Terminal TransferaseActivity

To gain more insight into these mechanisms of Polθ terminal transferaseactivity, the sequences of ssDNA extension products generated byPolθ-Mn²⁺ in the absence of Mg²⁺ and with a 10-fold excess of Mg²⁺ whichmodels cellular conditions were analyzed. As expected, most of the DNAsequence generated by Polθ-Mn²⁺ in the absence of Mg²⁺ was random andtherefore due to template-independent activity (FIG. 11A). This isconsistent with the appearance of a smear rather than a few discretebands as observed with Polθ-Mg²⁺ (FIG. 7G). Intriguingly, some of thesequences contained short regions that were either identical orcomplementary to the initial ssDNA (FIG. 11A, black underlines). Othersequence regions within individual molecules were complementary to oneanother but not to the original ssDNA template (FIG. 11A, grey andcolored lines). Next, DNA sequences generated by Polθ in the presence ofa 10-fold excess of Mg²⁺ relative to Mn²⁺ were analyzed, which moreclosely resembles physiological conditions (FIG. 11B). Again, randomsequence, complementary sequences within individual products (grey andcolored lines), and short sequence tracts identical or complementary tothe initial template (black underlines) were observed. Interestingly,Polθ generated more complementary sequences with an excess of Mg²⁺(compare FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B). Furthermore, the average length ofssDNA extension products was shorter with an excess of Mg²⁺ (FIG. 11E),which is consistent with the results in FIG. 7G.

Together, these data demonstrate that Polθ exhibits three distinct modesof terminal transferase activity when Mn²⁺ is present even at 10-foldlower concentrations than Mg²⁺ (FIG. 11C). In the first and predominantmode, Polθ performs template-independent terminal transferase activity(FIG. 11C, top). In the second mode, Polθ performs transienttemplate-dependent extension in cis, also called snap-back replication(FIG. 11C, bottom left). This mechanism accounts for the appearance ofcomplementary sequences within individual extension products (FIGS. 11Aand 11B; grey and colored lines). In the third mode, Polθ performstransient template dependent extension in trans (FIG. 11C, bottomright). This accounts for sequence tracts that are identical orcomplementary to the initial ssDNA substrate (FIGS. 11A and 11B; blackunderlines); templated extension in cis can also promote sequencecomplementary to the initial template (FIG. 11C). Identical sequencetracts are most likely due to copying in trans of complementary sequencetracts initially formed by templated extension in cis or in trans (FIG.12). Further in vitro and in vivo evidence for these three mechanisms ofterminal transferase activity is presented in FIGS. 13 and 14,respectively.

Intriguingly, many of the extension products were generated by more thanone mode of terminal transferase activity (FIG. 11B), which demonstratesthat the polymerase oscillates between these different mechanisms (FIG.11C). Product sequences were utilized to specifically trace thisenzymatic switching phenomenon at near base resolution (FIG. 11D). Forexample, sequence 8 from FIG. 11B demonstrates that Polθ first performs50 consecutive random nucleotide transfer events, then switches to atransient snap-back replication mode (templated extension in cis). Next,Polθ switches to random mode then after transferring 4 nt switches backto snap-back mode followed by another switch back to random synthesis.Next, Polθ switches to the templated extension in trans mode where itcopies 7 nt, then switches back to random mode for an additional 23 nt.Finally, Polθ switches back to snap-back mode, then after transferring 8nt it ends the reaction by randomly incorporating an additional 5 nt.Sequence 3 from FIG. 11B shows similar oscillation between thesedifferent mechanisms (FIG. 11D, bottom). Here, Polθ performs 55consecutive random nucleotide transfer events then switches to snap-backmode where it incorporates another 15 nt. Since the melting temperatureof this 15 bp duplex is predicted to be 50° C. and the reaction wasperformed at 42° C., Polθ appears to be capable of unwinding duplexesformed during snap-back replication. Polθ then performs three additionalswitching events, ultimately generating in a 138 nt product composed ofa combination of random and templated sequence.

Under these conditions, Polθ shows a preference for template-independentterminal transferase activity (FIG. 11C), which is more prevalent whenMg²⁺ is omitted (compare FIGS. 11A and 11B). Thus, the ratio of Mn²⁺ toMg²⁺ modulates the balance between these different mechanisms. Forexample, higher concentrations of Mn²⁺ promote template-independenttransfer events, whereas lower concentrations of Mn²⁺ reduce randomtransferase activity while increasing template-dependent activity due tosnap-back replication (compare FIGS. 11A and 11B). Higher concentrationsof Mn²⁺ also promote longer extension products, which correlates withthe polymerase's preference for template-independent activity underthese identical conditions (FIG. 11E; FIG. 7G).

To be certain Polθ-Mn²⁺ performs template-independent activity ratherthan highly error-prone template dependent activity which may beperceived as template-independent, multiple additional controls wereperformed. First, template-dependent and independent activities wereanalyzed in the same reaction performed in solid-phase (FIG. 15). Here,a biotinylated primer-template was immobilized to streptavidin beads,then excess template strand was removed by thorough washing. Primerextension in the presence of Mn²⁺ was then performed and extensionproducts were sequenced. The results show that the initialtemplate-dependent activity is performed with relatively high fidelity(FIG. 15B). For example, misincorporation and frameshift error rates of5.6×10⁻² and 6.9×10⁻³, respectively, were observed on this shorttemplate. On the other hand, once Polθ reaches the end of the templatemostly random sequence was generated, demonstrating template-independentactivity (FIG. 15B). Consistent with this Polθ is able to continue DNAsynthesis far beyond the end of the template exclusively in the presenceof Mn²⁺ (FIG. 15C). The rate of misincorporation and mismatch extensionby Polθ-Mn²⁺ on a primer-template in the presence of a single nucleotide(dATP) is dramatically slower than its activity under identicalconditions without the template strand present (FIG. 15D). Thus, thesedata demonstrate that Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminal transferase activity is not theresult of misincorporation or mismatch extension. As an additionalcontrol for template independent activity, it was tested whetherPolθ-Mn²⁺ performs de novo synthesis in the absence of DNA. Remarkably,Polθ-Mn²⁺ exhibits de novo DNA and RNA synthesis which unequivocallydemonstrates its ability to synthesize nucleic-acids in atemplate-independent manner (FIG. 16).

Next, it was examined whether Polθ-Mn²⁺ acts processively during ssDNAextension and whether the polymerase can switch between the threedifferent modes of terminal transferase activity without dissociatingfrom the initial ssDNA template. The processivity of Polθ-Mn²⁺ wastested on ssDNA by allowing the polymerase to extend the ssDNA for aninitial 5 min followed by the addition of a 150-fold excess of unlabeledssDNA which sequesters the polymerase if it dissociates from the initialradio-labeled ssDNA during the reaction (FIG. 17B). Remarkably, additionof the ssDNA trap had no effect on Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminal transferaseactivity, demonstrating that the polymerase performs ssDNA extensionwith high processivity. As a control, 150-fold excess of unlabeled ssDNAeffectively sequesters the polymerase from solution (FIG. 17A). SincePolθ-Mn²⁺ exhibits three different modes of terminal transferaseactivity under the same conditions (FIG. 11A), these results indicatethe polymerase switches between these distinct activities withoutdissociating from the initial ssDNA.

To further test the processivity of this switching mechanism ssDNAextension was performed in the presence and absence of a ssDNA trap insolid-phase which enabled removal of excess unbound polymerase fromsolution (FIG. 18). For example, Polθ was first allowed to bind ssDNAimmobilized to streptavidin beads. Then, excess unbound Polθ was removedby thorough washing of the beads. Next, the reaction was initiated bythe addition of dNTPs in buffer containing 10 mM Mn²⁺ and 1 mM Mn²⁺.After 15 seconds, a 150-fold excess of ssDNA trap was added, whereas thenegative control reaction contained no trap. Following completion of thereactions, the immobilized ssDNA was isolated and sequenced. Consistentwith the results obtained in FIG. 17, the ssDNA trap did not suppressPolθ terminal transferase activity. In fact, the data indicate that theaddition of excess ssDNA increases the length of ssDNA extensionproducts generated by Polθ in solid-phase (FIGS. 18B, 18C and 18D). Thissuggests that use of a template in trans enables Polθ terminaltransferase activity rather than suppressing it. Consistent with this,sequence analysis shows that Polθ frequently utilizes the ssDNA trap asa template in trans (FIG. 18D). The polymerase also performstemplateindependent and snap-back replication activities when the ssDNAtrap is present (FIG. 18D). Since Polθ is highly processive during ssDNAextension (FIG. 17), these data provide strong support for a modelwhereby a single polymerase oscillates between the three different modesof terminal transferase activity without dissociating from the initialssDNA template. Importantly, using intracellular concentrations of Mg²⁺(1 mM) and Mn²⁺ (50 μM), Polθ remains effective in extending ssDNA andutilizes a combination of templated and non-templated mechanisms duringthis activity (FIG. 19).

Polθ Oscillates Between Three Modes of Terminal Transferase ActivityDuring Alt-EJ

Next, Polθ terminal transferase activity was examined in the context ofalt-EJ. Although cellular studies have shown that Polθ expression isrequired for the appearance of non-templated and templated insertions atalt-EJ repair junctions, it remains unknown whether additional factorsor co-factors facilitate these insertion events. For example, Polθ hasbeen shown to promote what appears to be random nucleotide insertiontracts at alt-EJ repair junctions in mice and flies (FIG. 1B)(Chan etal., 2010; Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015). Evidence in flies, mice and wormsalso indicates that Polθ promotes templated nucleotide insertions, whichare proposed to be due to a template copy mechanism in trans (FIG. 7C)(Chan et al., 2010; Koole et al., 2014). To determine whether Polθ issolely responsible for these insertions, and whether the threemechanisms of terminal transferase activity identified herein facilitatethese insertions, a minimal alt-EJ system in vitro were reconstituted.Here, two DNA substrates containing a 3′ overhang, herein referred to aspartial ssDNA (pssDNA), and a single base pair of microhomology (G:C) attheir 3′ termini were incubated with Polθ, Lig3, ATP, and dNTPs inbuffer containing a high ratio of Mg²⁺ to Mn²⁺ which models cellularconditions (FIG. 13A, top). Although Polθ can perform MMEJ without Lig3by promoting templated extension in trans (FIG. 7A) (Kent, 2015), thepssDNA substrates in the current assay lack sufficient microhomology forMMEJ, but contain a 5′ phosphate on their short strands which cansupport ligation of the opposing 3′ overhang that is extended by thepolymerase (FIG. 13A, top). Control experiments show that the additionof Polθ and Lig3 is required for efficient alt-EJ, and that insertionsdepend on Polθ (FIG. 20C). These results are expected since Lig3 isrequired for most alt-EJ in cells and therefore likely functions withPolθ which facilitates insertions (Audebert et al., 2004; Simsek et al.,2011). Following termination of the reaction by EDTA, DNA was purifiedthen end-joining products were amplified by PCR and individuallysequenced from cloning vectors (FIGS. 20A and 20B).

To gain significant insight into the mechanisms of Polθ terminaltransferase activity during alt-EJ, tracts greater than 2 nt in lengthwere analyzed which reveal information regarding template dependency.Remarkably, Polθ generated both random and templated nucleotideinsertions at repair junctions (FIG. 13A), which is similar to theresults obtained in FIG. 11. In the case of templated insertions,sequence tracts that appear to be due to both templated extension in cis(snap-back replication; red underlines) and in trans (grey underlines)were observed. A median insertion length of 7 bp was observed (FIG.13B), and cumulative analysis of individual nucleotide insertion eventsreveals a roughly equal proportion of insertions due to the three modesof terminal transferase activity identified in FIG. 11, for examplenon-templated extension, templated extension in cis, and templatedextension in trans (FIG. 13C). Polθ switching activity was modeled basedon the sequence generated, in this case during alt-EJ (FIG. 13D).Consistent with the mechanism identified in FIG. 11, sequence tracesstrongly suggest spontaneous and rapid switching between the threedifferent terminal transferase activities (FIG. 13D).

It was next examined whether the polymerase acts processively togenerate insertions during alt-EJ. To test this, the alt-EJ reaction invitro was repeated with the addition of a 150-fold excess of ssDNA trap15 seconds after the reaction was initiated. The results show that Polθgenerates similar insertion tract lengths in the presence and absence ofthe ssDNA trap (compare FIG. 13 and FIG. 21). Thus, these data alsoindicate that Polθ acts processively during alt-EJ which providesfurther support for a model whereby a single polymerase oscillatesbetween the different terminal transferase activities prior todissociating from the initial substrate. Importantly, further alt-EJexperiments show that Polθ generates similar size insertions by acombination of templated and non-templated mechanisms in the presence of1 mM Mg²⁺ and 50 μM Mn²⁺ which model intracellular concentrations (FIG.22).

To test whether Polθ uses this switching mechanism to generateinsertions during alt-EJ in cells, insertion tracts synthesized by Polθduring alt-EJ in vivo was analyzed (FIG. 14). Here, Polθ dependentalt-EJ in mouse embryonic stem cells promotes translocations betweensequence specific DSBs generated in chromosomal DNA by the CRISPR/Cas9system, as shown in previous studies (FIG. 14A, top) (Mateos-Gomez etal., 2015). To distinguish between the different Polθ mediatedactivities during chromosomal translocation, junctions of eventsresulting from the cleavage of chromosomes 6 and 11, and subsequentformation of Der (6) and (11) were carefully analyzed. Similar to FIG.13, junctions containing insertions >2 bp in length were analyzed.Remarkably, in the cellular alt-EJ system insertion tracts were observedthat appear to be due to all three modes of Polθ terminal transferaseactivity (FIG. 14A). For example, similar to the results obtained in thein vitro alt-EJ system (FIG. 13), cumulative analysis of individualnucleotide insertion events produced in vivo demonstrates that Polθgenerates a roughly equal proportion of insertion events due to thethree different modes of terminal transferase activity (FIGS. 14A, 14B,and 14C). Templated extension in trans accounts for short sequenceduplications (black and grey underlines), whereas templated extension incis (snap-back replication) accounts for the appearance of shortcomplementary sequence tracts (red and blue underlines) (FIG. 14A).Individual nucleotide insertion events due to non-templated extensionappear to be slightly lower in the in vivo system (33.2%) compared tothe in vitro system (39%), which is likely due to a lower proportion ofMn²⁺ to Mg²⁺ in cells. Consistent with this, events due to templatedextension in cis (snap-back replication) appear slightly higher in thein vivo system (37.2%) compared to the in vitro system (28.8%). It isnoted that DNA deletions were observed in both systems, albeit morefrequently in cells which is likely due to nuclease activity. Deletionsin the in vitro system likely result from Polθ mediated end-joining atinternal sites within the 3′ overhang, as shown previously (Kent, 2015).This mechanism may also contribute to deletions observed in vivo.Regardless of the specific mechanisms underlying deletion formation ineach system, the insertion tracts observed in vitro and in vivo appearsimilar in nature in regards to template dependency (compare FIGS. 13Cand 14C). Furthermore, the median insertion tract length (7 bp)generated by Polθ in vitro and in vivo was identical (compare FIGS. 13Band 14B). Thus, these data demonstrate that the reconstituted alt-EJsystem closely resembles the mechanism of alt-EJ in cells. It is notedthat some large (>30 bp) insertions copied from remote chromosome sitesand the CRISPR/Cas9 vector were also observed in the in vivo system(FIG. 23). However, these insertions are likely due to a differentmechanism such as strand invasion into duplex DNA. Additional analysisof end-joining products generated in vivo demonstrates that Polθpreferentially produces insertions >2 bp in length, and occasionallygenerates relatively long insertions (i.e. >25 bp) (FIG. 24).Importantly, sequences of end-joining products generated in vivo supportthe same mechanism of Polθ switching observed in vitro (FIG. 14D).Altogether, the results presented in FIGS. 13 and 14 along with previousstudies showing the requirement for Polθ in forming insertions indicatethat Polθ is the main enzyme involved in generating insertions duringalt-EJ. These results also indicate that Polθ oscillates between threedifferent modes of terminal transferase activity to generate insertionmutations, and that Mn²⁺ likely acts as a co-factor for Polθ in vivo.

Polθ Exhibits Preferential Terminal Transferase Activity on DNA with 3′Overhangs

Next, Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminal transferase activity on a variety of DNAsubstrates was characterized. For example, Polθ-Mn²⁺ was tested onhomopolymeric ssDNA composed of either deoxythymidinemonophosphates(poly-dT) or deoxycytidine-monophosphates (poly-dC), and ssDNAcontaining variable sequences. The polymerase preferentially extendedall of the substrates by more than 100 nt in the presence ofdeoxyadenosine-triphosphate (dATP), regardless of the sequence context(FIGS. 25A and 25B). Polymerases are known to preferentially incorporatedeoxyadenosine-monophosphate (dAMP) when template base coding is notavailable, which is referred to as the A-rule. For example, polymerasespreferentially incorporate a single dAMP opposite an abasic site or atthe end of a template. Thus, the observed preferential incorporation ofdAMP by Polθ-Mn²⁺ is consistent with the A-rule and template-independentactivity. Polθ also extended ssDNA in the presence of dTTP, dCTP, anddGTP, however, the lengths of these products were shorter than with dATP(FIGS. 25A and 25B). For example, in the case of non-homopolymericssDNA, Polθ-Mn²⁺ transferred ˜30-70 nt in the presence of dTTP, dCTP, ordGTP (FIG. 25B), which demonstrates that Polθ-Mn²⁺ terminal transferaseactivity is relatively efficient even in the absence of the preferreddATP. Notably, the non-homologous endjoining (NHEJ) X-family polymerase,Polμ, exhibited minimal terminal transferase activity compared to Polθunder identical conditions (FIG. 26). Previous studies similarlydemonstrated limited terminal transferase activity by Polμ which is mostclosely related to TdT (Andrade et al., 2009). Thus, to date the datapresented insofar indicate that, aside from TdT, Polθ possesses the mostrobust terminal transferase activity for the polymerase enzyme class.

Next, the ability of Polθ-Mn²⁺ to extend blunt-ended double-strand DNA(dsDNA) was examined. The results show that Polθ efficiently extendsduplex DNA, however, this is limited to only 1-2 nucleotides which maybe due to a lower affinity of the polymerase for blunt-ended DNA (FIG.25C). Interestingly, Polθ efficiently extended a primer-template farbeyond the downstream end of the template (FIG. 25D, left). Thus, thepolymerase performs efficient long-range extension of dsDNA when given arunning start (FIG. 25D, right schematic).

Considering that Polθ is thought to act on DSBs partially resected byMRN and CtIP during MMEJ/alt-EJ (Kent, 2015), its terminal transferaseactivity on pssDNA was examined. Remarkably, Polθ-Mn²⁺ exhibited themost efficient terminal transferase activity on pssDNA (FIG. 25E). Forexample, the polymerase extended the pssDNA substrates to longer lengthswith dTTP and dCTP, whereas dGTP was still limiting (compare FIG. 25Ewith FIG. 25B).

Consistent with its role in promoting alt-EJ of telomeres in cellsdeficient in telomere protection and NHEJ factors (Mateos-Gomez et al.,2015), Polθ exhibits efficient terminal transferase activity on ssDNAmodeled after telomeres which are known to contain stable G-quadruplex(G4) secondary structures (FIG. 25F). Here again, extension in thepresence of dGTP was suppressed. Considering that consecutive dGMPincorporation events limit Polθ terminal transferase activity, it ispresumed that the multiple guanosines present in telomere repeats causea similar inhibitory effect. All other nucleotides were efficientlytransferred to the telomeric ssDNA substrate (FIG. 25F). Taken together,the results in FIG. 5 show that Polθ exhibits the most robust terminaltransferase activity on pssDNA which is consistent with its role inMMEJ/alt-EJ, and that the polymerase is also efficient in extendingvarious ssDNA substrates and dsDNA when given a running start.

Conserved Residues Facilitate Polθ Processivity and Terminal TransferaseActivity

Next, the structural motifs that promote Polθ terminal transferaseactivity were identified. Polθ is a unique A family polymerase since itcontains three insertion loops, and previous studies have shown thatloop 2 is necessary for Polθ extension of ssDNA (Hogg et al., 2012;Kent, 2015). The position of this motif is conserved in Polθ and islocated immediately downstream from a conserved positively chargedresidue, arginine (R) or lysine (K), at position 2254 (FIG. 27A). Recentstructural studies of Polθ in complex with a primer-template andincoming nucleotide show that loop 2 lies relatively close to the 3′terminus of the primer, but is likely flexible in this conformation dueto a lack of resolution (FIG. 27B) (Zahn et al., 2015). Considering thatPolθ ssDNA extension with Mg²⁺ is likely related to its activity withMn²⁺, it is possible that loop 2 would also confer template-independentterminal transferase activity. Indeed, a loop 2 deletion mutant of Polθ(PolθL2) failed to extend ssDNA under optimal template-independentterminal transferase conditions with Mn²⁺ (FIG. 27C). Similar toprevious results, PolθL2 fully extended a primer-template (FIG. 27D).Here, PolθWT extension continued beyond the template due to thepolymerase's robust terminal transferase activity with Mn²⁺ (FIG. 27D).

Structural studies showed that two conserved positively chargedresidues, R2202 and R2254, bind to the phosphate backbone of the 3′portion of the primer (FIGS. 27A and 27B) (Zahn et al., 2015). Sincethese positively charged residues are conserved in Polθ but not otherA-family members (FIG. 27A), the charged residues might contribute toPolθ terminal transferase activity. First primer-extension of a doublemutant version of Polθ in which R2202 and R2254 were changed to alanine(A) and valine (V), respectively (PolθRR) was tested. Recent studiesshowed that single R2202A and R2254V Polθ mutants were slightlydefective in translesion synthesis (Zahn et al., 2015). PolθRR extendedthe primer in a similar manner to PolθWT (FIG. 27E). Yet, PolθRR showeda severe defect in template-independent terminal transferase activitycompared to PolθWT under identical conditions with Mn²⁺ (FIG. 27F).Since PolθWT performs terminal transferase activity with highprocessivity, it was contemplated whether PolθRR exhibits reducedprocessivity. Indeed, PolθRR showed a significant deficiency in primerextension compared to PolθWT when a large excess of DNA was present,confirming a reduction in processivity (FIG. 27G). These data alsosuggest that PolθWT exhibits lower processivity during primer-templateextension compared to ssDNA extension (compare FIGS. 27G and 17). SincePolθRR is defective in processivity and template-independent terminaltransferase activity, this suggests that the polymerase must beprocessive on ssDNA to effectively perform template-independent terminaltransferase activity. Together, these data identify conserved residuesthat contribute to Polθ terminal transferase activity by conferringprocessivity onto the enzyme through binding the 3′ primer terminus.

Comparison of Polθ and TdT Terminal Transferase Activities

Importantly, terminal transferase activity is widely used to modifyssDNA ends for various types of applications including biotechnology,biomedical research, and synthetic biology. Currently, the only enzymedeveloped and marketed for these applications is terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) whose cellular function is to promoteantibody diversity by transferring non-templated nucleotides to V, D andJ exon regions during antibody gene maturation(Motea and Berdis, 2010).The activities of Polθ and TdT were compared as shown in FIG. 28A.Remarkably, Polθ exhibited a similar ability to extend ssDNA as TdTassayed under optimal conditions recommended by the supplier (FIG. 28A).The results also show that in this reaction Polθ and TdT preferentiallyutilize dATP and dTTP, respectively, which suggests different mechanismsof action (FIG. 28A).

Many biotechnology and biomedical research applications require ssDNAsubstrates modified with fluorophores or other chemical groups, such asthose that enable DNA attachment to solid surfaces. Therefore theability of Polθ to transfer deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotidesconjugated with different functional groups to the 3′ terminus of ssDNAwas examined. Again, using the supplier's recommended assay conditionsfor TdT, and identical concentrations of Polθ under its optimalconditions, Polθ-Mn²⁺ was more effective in transferring ribonucleotidesto ssDNA compared to TdT (FIG. 28B). Although previous studies haveshown that Polθ strongly discriminates against ribonucleotides (Hogg etal., 2012), this fidelity mechanism is largely compromised under theseconditions used for terminal transferase activity. Again, using therespective optimal conditions for Polθ and TdT at identicalconcentrations, Polθ-Mn²⁺ was more proficient in transferring mostmodified deoxy-ribonucleotides and ribonucleotides to ssDNA than TdT(FIGS. 28C and 28D). For example, Polθ more efficiently transferredeight out of ten modified nucleotides tested. In some cases, Polθproduced longer extension products than TdT (FIG. 28C). In other cases,Polθ transferred nucleotides that TdT was unable to incorporate (FIG.28C, black boxes). For instance, Polθ efficiently transferred anucleotide containing a linker attached to an azide group which iswidely used for “click chemistry” applications (FIG. 28C, lane 6). Incontrast, TdT failed to transfer this nucleotide altogether (FIG. 28C,lane 17). Moreover, TdT failed to transfer nucleotides containing amodified sugar and a linker attached to Texas Red, whereas thesesubstrates were efficiently incorporated by Polθ (FIG. 28C, nucleotideanalogs 4 and 9). These results show that Polθ efficiently transfersribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides containing modifications ontheir base moieties, such as fluorophores and functional groupsincluding biotin and digoxigenin, as well as nucleotides containingsugar modifications (i.e. ganciclovir mono-phosphate). Considering thatPolθ also exhibits translesion synthesis activity, these results may beattributed to its natural ability to accommodate non-canonicalnucleotides in its active site (Hogg et al., 2011; Yoon et al., 2014).

Lastly, whether Polθ exhibits terminal transferase activity on RNA wasinvestigated. Surprisingly, Polθ transferred both canonical and modifiednucleotides to RNA (FIG. 28E). Together, the results presented in FIG.28 characterize Polθ as among the most proficient terminal transferasesidentified and demonstrate that Polθ is more effective than TdT inmodifying nucleic-acid substrates for biomedical research andbiotechnology applications.

Mechanisms by which a Single Polymerase can Synthesize DNA

Recent studies have discovered that mammalian Polθ is essential forMMEJ/alt-NHEJ, which promotes chromosome rearrangements and resistanceto DNA damaging agents, including those used for chemotherapy (Kent,2015; Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015; Yousefzadeh et al., 2014). Polθ waspreviously shown to be essential for alt-EJ in flies and worms (Chan etal., 2010; Koole et al., 2014), demonstrating a conserved role for thispolymerase in higher eukaryotes. These cellular studies have shown thattwo types of insertions, non-templated and templated, are generated atalt-EJ repair junctions which are dependent on Polθ expression (Chan etal., 2010; Koole et al., 2014; Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015; Yousefzadeh etal., 2014). In the case of non-templated insertions, it has beenproposed that Polθ promotes random transfer of nucleotides via aputative template-independent terminal transferase activity(Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015). Yet, biochemical studies have shown thatPolθ lacks template-independent terminal transferase activity, creatinga paradox between cellular and in vitro data (Kent, 2015; Yousefzadeh etal., 2014). In the case of templated insertions, a copy in trans modelhas been proposed which also has not been proven in vitro (Chan et al.,2010; Koole et al., 2014; Yousefzadeh et al., 2014). The data presentedherein elucidates how Polθ generates both templated and non-templatednucleotide insertion mutations during alt-EJ, and characterize thepolymerase as a highly robust terminal transferase for biotechnology andbiomedical research applications.

First, Polθ exhibits robust template-independent terminal transferaseactivity in the presence of Mn²⁺. Considering that structural studiesshow that differential binding of divalent cations within the activesite of Polθ slightly alters its local conformation (Zahn et al., 2015),Mn²⁺ binding likely facilitates an active site conformation morefavorable for non-templated DNA synthesis. Since Polθ dependentnontemplated nucleotide insertions are commonly associated with alt-EJin cells, these findings suggest that Mn²⁺ acts as a co-factor of Polθin vivo. For example, although the concentration of Mn²⁺ is relativelylow in cells (˜0.2 mM) and is considerably less than Mg²⁺ (˜1.0 mM),these concentrations of Mn²⁺ and Mg²⁺ stimulate Polθtemplate-independent terminal transferase activity by 3-8 fold. Thus,cellular concentrations of Mn²⁺ are likely to activate Polθtemplate-independent activity. Intriguingly, Mn²⁺ has been shown to actas a necessary co-factor for the MRX nuclease complex and its mammaliancounterpart, MRN, which is also essential for alt-EJ due to its role ingenerating 3′ ssDNA overhangs onto which Polθ acts (Cannavo and Cejka,2014; Trujillo et al., 1998). Thus, various enzymes involved in DNArepair are likely to utilize Mn²⁺ as a cofactor in addition to Mg²⁺.

Surprisingly, the Polθ-Mn²⁺ complex exhibited a higher efficiency oftransferring ribonucleotides and most modified nucleotide analogs to the3′ terminus of ssDNA than TdT at identical concentrations. For example,in the presence of ribonucleotides, Polθ-Mn²⁺ generated substantiallylonger extension products, which demonstrates a lower discriminationagainst ribonucleotides. Polθ-Mn²⁺ also produced longer extensionproducts than TdT in the presence of most nucleotide analogs, includingthose that contain large functional groups. Moreover, Polθ-Mn²⁺efficiently transferred certain nucleotide analags that TdT failed toutilize as substrates. For instance, Polθ-Mn²⁺ exclusively transfers anucleotide conjugated with Texas Red and a nucleotide containing anazide group which is widely used for “click” chemistry applications.Furthermore, Polθ-Mn²⁺ is capable of transferring canonical and modifiednucleotides to RNA, albeit with lower efficiency than DNA. Based onthese unexpected findings, it is contemplated herein that Polθ will bemore useful for modifying nucleic acid substrates for biotechnology,biomedical research and synthetic biology applications. Moreover, sincePolθ does not require toxic reaction components like TdT, such as Co²⁺salts or salts of cacodylic acid, Polθ terminal transferase assays are asafer option for research and biotechnology applications.

The data presented herein raises the question why evolution selected fortwo robust terminal transferases: Polθ and TdT. It is well known thatthe primary function of TdT is to generate insertion mutations duringNHEJ of V, D and J antibody gene regions, which promotes antibodydiversity that is necessary for a strong immune system (Motea andBerdis, 2010). Since a diverse immunological defense is important forsurvival, a clear selective pressure for TdT existed. In the case ofPolθ, it appears that the polymerase has also been selected to generateinsertion mutations during end-joining, however, the evolutionarypressure for this particular mechanism is not as clear. For example,although Polθ is essential for alt-EJ, this pathway appears to occurinfrequently compared to primary DSB repair processes, such as HR(Mateos-Gomez et al., 2015; Truong et al., 2013). Consistent with this,Polθ is not important for normal cell survival or development. Recentstudies of C. elegans, however, surprisingly show that Polθ mediatedalt-EJ is a primary form of repair in germ cells (van Schendel et al.,2015). Furthermore, it was shown that Polθ mediated alt-EJ promotes adeletion and insertion (indel) signature in propogated laboratorystrains that is similar to indels found in natural isolates (vanSchendel et al., 2015). These studies therefore suggest that Polθ isimportant for generating genetic diversity. Interestingly, human Polθ ishighly expressed in testis, suggesting the polymerase might also play arole in facilitating genetic diversity in mammals (Seki et al., 2003).

Considering that alt-EJ also promotes replication repair as a backup toHR, Polθ likely benefits cell survival at the expense of indels whenlethal DSBs fail to be repaired by the primary HR pathway (Truong etal., 2013). For example, Polθ mediated alt-EJ in C. elegans was shown tofacilitate replication repair at stable G4 structures which may poseproblems for the HR machinery and therefore potentially require analternative and more accommodating error-prone form of repair (Koole etal., 2014). Polθ has also been shown to suppress large genetic deletionsin C. elegans, which demonstrates an obvious benefit for the polymerase(Koole et al., 2014). Yet, whether these various functions of Polθ areconserved in mammals awaits further research.

These studies reveal that Polθ generates nucleotide insertions byoscillating between multiple mechanisms, which portrays a promiscuousenzyme that readily extends ssDNA by almost any means in order tocatalyze end-joining products that frequently contain insertionmutations. For example, it was observed that Polθ generates nucleotideinsertions during alt-EJ in vitro by spontaneously switching betweenthree distinct modes of terminal transferase activity: non-templatedextension, templated extension in cis, and templated extension in trans.Importantly, the characteristics of these insertions are nearlyidentical to those generated by Polθ mediated alt-EJ in cells, whichindicates that Polθ also switches between these three mechanisms ofterminal transferase activity in vivo. The ability of a polymerase tospontaneously switch between three distinct modes of DNA synthesis hasnot been demonstrated. Thus, this data reveal an unprecedented set ofmechanisms by which a single polymerase can synthesize DNA, presumablyfor generating genetic diversity and as a last resort for repairinglethal DSBs at the expense of mutations.

Example 4: Polymerase θ Exhibits Terminal Transferase Activity

FIG. 29 demonstrates the ability of invertebrate Polθ to modify the 3′ends of ssDNA. The polymerase domain of invertebrate and vertebrate Polθdiffer within their respective insertion domains with regards tosequence identity. Invertebrate Polθ contains smaller insertion loopscompared to vertebrate Polθ. Otherwise, the polymerase domains of thesepolymerases are very similar in sequence. The polymerase domain of C.elegans Polθ was purified and its terminal transferase activity wascompared to human Polθ in FIG. 29. The results show that C. elegans Polθalso exhibits terminal transferase activity that is stimulated by Mn²⁺.Thus, both vertebrate and invertebrate Polθ exhibit robust terminaltransferase activity and can be used to modify the 3′ terminus ofnucleic acids with various types of nucleotides and nucleotide analogsfor basic and applied research, and for commercial biotechnology andsynthetic biology applications.

Next, it was examined whether Polθ is capable of efficient extension ofRNA. FIG. 30 demonstrates that human Polθ efficiently transfers dNMPs tothe 3′ terminus of a relatively long RNA substrate 34 nt in length underoptimal conditions with Mn²⁺ present in the reaction buffer.

Several biotechnology and research applications require modification ofDNA with the nucleotide analog 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine-monophosphate. InFIG. 31 it is shown that human Polθ efficiently transfers multiple5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine-monophosphates to the 3′ terminus of ssDNA underoptimal buffer conditions with Mn²⁺ present in the reaction buffer.

The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, andpublication cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety. While this invention has been disclosed with referenceto specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments andvariations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in the artwithout departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. Theappended claims are intended to be construed to include all suchembodiments and equivalent variations.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of modifying a 3′ terminal end of anucleic acid with a substrate, the method comprising: forming a mixturecomprising an A family polymerase, a substrate, a nucleic acid, and areaction solution, wherein the A family polymerase is Polθ or an activefragment or variant thereof, wherein the nucleic acid is selected fromthe group consisting of a single stranded nucleic acid, double strandednucleic acid possessing a 3′ single stranded overhang, double strandednucleic acid lacking a 5′ single stranded overhang, and nucleic acidlacking a 5′ single stranded overhang; and wherein the reaction solutioncomprises at least one divalent metal, wherein the divalent metalcomprises manganese (Mn²⁺); incubating the mixture; and isolating a3′-terminal end modified nucleic acid.
 2. The method of claim 1, whereinthe nucleic acid is selected from the group consisting of singlestranded DNA (ssDNA), double stranded DNA possessing a 3′ ssDNAoverhang, single stranded RNA, double stranded RNA possessing a 3′single stranded RNA overhang, double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessinga 3′ ssDNA overhang, double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′single strand RNA overhang, nucleic acid lacking a 5′ ssDNA overhang,and telomeric ssDNA.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the nucleic acidis RNA.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein Polθ comprises the amino acidsequence of SEQ ID NO
 1. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrateis selected from the group consisting of dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dUTP, ATP,CTP, UTP, GTP, a modified nucleotide, or any combination thereof.
 6. Themethod of claim 5, wherein the modified nucleotide is selected fromcy3-dUTP, Digoxigenin-11-dUTP, Biotin-16AA-dUTP, Texas Red-5-dCTP,Cyanine 3-AA-UTP, 4-Thio-UTP, Biotin-16-AACTP, Ganciclovir Triphosphate,N6-(6-Azido)hexyl-adenosine-5′-triphosphate, and5-Hydroxymethyl-2′-deoxyuridine-5′-Triphosphate.
 7. The method of claim1, wherein the divalent metal further comprises cobalt (Co²⁺).
 8. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the divalent metal is at a concentration ofabout 1 mM to about 50 mM.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein thedivalent metal is at a concentration of about 5 mM.
 10. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the reaction solution further comprises glycerol, anon-ionic detergent, and a buffer.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein aconcentration of the glycerol in the reaction solution is less than orequal to 20%.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the concentration ofglycerol in the reaction solution is 10%.
 13. The method of claim 10,wherein the non-ionic detergent is NP-40.
 14. The method of claim 10,wherein a concentration of the non-ionic detergent is less than 1%. 15.The method of claim 14, wherein the concentration of the non-ionicdetergent is 0.1%.
 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the buffer isMES/TRIS and wherein MES/TRIS is at a concentration of about 20 mM toabout 100 mM.
 17. The method of claim 10, wherein the pH of the bufferis 6.5-8.8.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the pH of the buffer is8.2.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the incubating the mixture isincubating the mixture for at least 2 hours.
 20. The method of claim 1,where the incubating the mixture is incubating the mixture at 25° C.-42°C.
 21. The method of claim 20, where the incubating the mixture isincubating the mixture at 42° C.
 22. A kit for modifying a 3′ terminalend of a nucleic acid with a substrate, the kit comprising an A-familypolymerase and a reaction solution, wherein the nucleic acid is selectedfrom the group consisting of a single stranded DNA (ssDNA), doublestranded DNA possessing a 3′ ssDNA overhang, single stranded RNA, doublestranded RNA possessing a 3′ single stranded RNA overhang, doublestranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′ ssDNA overhang, double strandedDNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′ single strand RNA overhang, nucleic acidlacking a 5′ ssDNA overhang, and telomeric ssDNA; wherein the A-familypolymerase is Polθ, or an active fragment or variant thereof; andwherein the reaction solution comprises manganese (Mn2+).
 23. The kit ofclaim 22, the kit further comprising the substrate.
 24. The kit of claim22, wherein the nucleic acid is a single stranded RNA or a doublestranded RNA possessing a 3′ single stranded RNA overhang.
 25. The kitof claim 22, wherein the reaction solution comprises 5 mM Mn²⁺, 20 mMTris HCl pH 8.2, 10% glycerol, 0.01% NP-40 and 0.1 mg/mL BSA.
 26. Amethod of synthesizing sequence-specific nucleic acids, the methodcomprising: forming a mixture comprising an A family polymerase, atleast one nucleotide, and a reaction solution, wherein the reactionsolution comprises a nucleic acid and at least one divalent metal,wherein the nucleic acid is selected from the group consisting of asingle stranded DNA (ssDNA), double stranded DNA possessing a 3′ ssDNAoverhang, single stranded RNA, double stranded RNA possessing a 3′single stranded RNA overhang, double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessinga 3′ ssDNA overhang, double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′single strand RNA overhang, nucleic acid lacking a 5′ ssDNA overhang,and telomeric ssDNA, wherein the A family polymerase is Polθ, or anactive fragment or variant thereof; and wherein the divalent metalcomprises manganese (Mn²⁺); incubating the mixture; and isolating anucleic acid with a defined sequence.
 27. The method of claim 26,wherein the nucleic acid is a single stranded RNA or a double strandedRNA possessing a 3′ single stranded RNA overhang.
 28. The method ofclaim 26, wherein the at least one nucleotide is selected from ATP, UTP,GTP, CTP, dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP, a modified nucleotide, and anycombination thereof.
 29. The method of claim 1, wherein the 3′-terminalend modified nucleic acid is selected from the group consisting of assDNA, double stranded DNA possessing a 3′ ssDNA overhang, singlestranded RNA, double stranded RNA possessing a 3′ single stranded RNAoverhang, double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′ ssDNA overhang,double stranded DNA/RNA hybrid possessing a 3′ single strand RNAoverhang, nucleic acid lacking a 5′ ssDNA overhang, and telomeric ssDNA.